TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF NIGERIAN TEACHERS’ CODES AND ETHICS
BY
AGAIGBE UHEMBANSHA
NSU/ARTS/MA/ENG/005/15/16
BEING AN M.A. DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES, NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY, KEFFI IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
SUPERVISOR: PROF. ADEWOLE ADIGUN ALAGBE
MARCH, 2023
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation has been written by me and that it is a report of my research work. It has not been presented in my previous application for Higher Degree. All quotations and sources of information are specifically acknowledged by means of references.
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Agaigbe Uhembansha Date
NSU/ARTS/MA/ENG/005/15/16
CERTIFICAION
This dissertation titled “Textual Analysis of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes and Ethics” meets the regulations governing the award of Master of Arts, the School of post graduate studies, Nasarawa State University, Keffi and is approved for its contribution to knowledge.
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Prof. Adewole Adigun Alagbe Date
Chairman, supervisory committee
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Dr. Tanimu YusufDate
Member, Supervisory Committee
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Dr. Salisu M. RajDate
Head of Department, English
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Internal Examiner Date
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External Examiner Date
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Prof. Gideon Omachonu Date
Dean, Faculty of Arts
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Prof. Jonathan M. AyubaDate
Dean of Postgraduate Studies
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am particularly grateful to God Almighty for His mercy and the opportunities He has offered me to pursue and achieve my life goals; one of them being my career. I am grateful for His mercy because it covers my spiritual, mental and physical health.
My next appreciation goes to my thesis supervisor, Prof. Adewole Adigun Alagbe, for his constructive comments; without which, I would not have actualized this huge success. Special thanks also go to my internal examiner, Dr. Tanimu Yusuf who has guided me in all possible ways to make sure that the research work meets the required scholarly standard. Of course, I acknowledge that this research is far from being perfect, and as such, I expect constructive criticisms to better my subsequent researches.
Next, I want to appreciate all my lecturers, especially, Prof. Adewole Adigun Alagbe, Dr. Salisu M. Raj, Dr. Tanimu Yusuf and Dr. Stephen David for the quality knowledge they have impacted in me; the result of which may be seen in this dissertation. Their concerted efforts have made me knowledgeably better.
I want to conclude by appreciating my family members who have contributed immeasurably in various ways to ensure that all my dreams regarding career come true. Indeed, I am indebted to everyone who has contributed in one way or the other to assist me in time of need during my postgraduate programme. On this note, I want to specially acknowledge my Parents, Agaigbe John Beega and Agaigbe Mvaaga Rebecca, for a great effort in my upbringing.
ABSTRACT
The textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes seems not to have been wholly explored by textual analysts, hence the researcher’s interest to take up an aspect of the analytical landscape by embarking on textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory. Secondly, there are always reported cases of violation of teachers’ codes by some teachers. Some analysts do attribute this professional misconduct to misinterpretation or misapplication of the codes. The researcher is motivated by this factor to attempt interpreting the codes with the view to drawing out the functional messages contained in them and to figure out why some teachers misinterpret the codes. To examine these problems, forty-five (45) clauses and clause complexes of the codes are sampled and analysed. Twenty of the codes, labelled as “clauses”, are studied using ideational, interpersonal and textual meta-functions as specified by Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory. The remaining twenty-five codes, represented as “clause complexes”, are analysed using taxis and lexico-semantic relations. The data for the study is drawn from TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct, the internet and print materials and the researcher uses qualitative research design for data analysis. After a study of the codes, the researcher uncovers that teachers’ codes are professional guidelines with adequate discourse structures that can be analysed using dissimilar linguistic theories. Another unearthing is that the functional messages of teachers’ codes revolve around professional guiding principles that stipulate how teachers should relate with learners, parents, fellow teachers, employers and the society. Also, the study reveals that one of the reasons teachers’ codes are misinterpreted or misapplied by some teachers is because the codes are not interpreted to them. As result of some of these findings, the researcher suggests that subsequent editions of teachers’ codes should stipulate how the codes will be interpreted to teachers from time to time. Finally, the researcher suggests a comparative study of teachers’ codes because this study covers just the Nigerian teachers’ codes, and it would be linguistically more interesting when teachers’ codes from two different countries are comparatively studied using another discourse theory or an eclectic approach.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ——————————————————————————————-i
CERTIFICATION —————————————————————————————–ii
DEDICATION ———————————————————————————————iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ——————————————————————————iv
ABSTRACT ————————————————————————————————v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ———————————————————————————vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the Study ———————————————————————1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ——————————————————————–3
1.3. Research Questions —————————————————————————5
1.4. Aim and Objectives of the Study————————————————————6
1.5. Scope of the Study —————————————————————————-6
1.6. Significance of the Study ——————————————————————–7
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0. Preamble ————————————————————————————–9
2.1. Textual Analysis —————————————————————————-10 2.2. Discourse Analysis ————————————————————————-13
2.3. Discourse and Semantics ——————————————————————15
2.4. Discourse and Ideology ——————————————————————–16
2.5. Discourse and Text ————————————————————————-18
2.6. Text and Texture —————————————————————————-19
2.7. Context and Register ———————————————————————–21
2.8. Lexicology and Grammar —————————————————————–22
2.9. Phonology and Graphology —————————————————————24
2.10. The Clause ———————————————————————————25
2.11. The Clause Complex ———————————————————————28
2.12. Cohesion and Coherence —————————————————————–34
2.13. Theme and Rheme ————————————————————————36
2.14. Thematic Progression ———————————————————————37
2.15. The Teaching Profession and ethical codes ——————————————-39
2.16. Theoretical Framework ——————————————————————-41
2.16.1. Meta-Functions——————————————————————43
2.16.1.1. Interpersonal meta-function ————————————————43
2.16.1.2. Ideational Meta-Function —————————————————44
2.16.1.3. Textual Meta-Function —————————————————–49
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0. Preamble ————————————————————————————-49
3.1. Method of Data Collection —————————————————————-49
3.2. Research Design —————————————————————————-49
3.3. Method of Data Analysis ——————————————————————50
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0. Preamble ————————————————————————————-52
4.1. Data Presentation —————————————————————————52
4.2. Data Analysis ——————————————————————————-56
4.2.1. Clauses of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes————————————————–57
4.2.2. Clause Complexes of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes ————————————77
4.3. Data Discussion —————————————————————————–99
4.4. Findings ————————————————————————————103
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5. 1. Summary ———————————————————————————-108
5.2. Conclusion ———————————————————————————110
5.3. Suggestions ——————————————————————————–113
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the Study
According to Gurdeep, language is the machinery that we steadily use to converse, to translate, to articulate or to write to others and to complete inestimable activities in our daily interface with one another (361). This means that in the course of human interactions, through language, meaning is encoded and decoded. Gee and Handford explain that the purpose of language is not only for communication of meaning alone. According to them “we do not just mean things with language: we also do things with language” (1). In other words, for us to foster human relations, we have to translate our experiences or implications of the world into a language that is meaningfuland functional or utilitarian. In line with this, Eggins stipulates that all the time we have “to react to and construct bits of language that makes sense” (l) [sic]
Y
The interactions of human experiences through communications in texts have been the business of discourse analysts who really want to know the communications that take place in the discourses of various fields and professions. These analysts have produced engaging discussions on the discourses of different professions such as law, medicine, journalism, accounting and so on. The teaching profession is not totally left out. However, in as much as there are studies in this area in humanities, and even Arts, little has been done in Discourse Analysis regarding the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics. Thus, the researcher is motivated by the craving to top up the fissure. Therefore, the research work is a profound study of the Nigerian teachers’ code and ethics.
Generally, teaching and language learning are aspects of Applied Linguistics and Education. Education is considered to be a master key to any social-political and economic development of any nation. Teachers are the pivots on which the educational system or process rests. This means that teachers have a crucial role to play in the educational life of any society. Aklahyel (344) asserts that “teaching is one of the most noble and the oldest professions in the history of mankind”. This means that the teaching profession has been with mankind right from the inception, and it is the most indomitable profession of all times. In assessing the critical attribute of teachers and the foremost roles they play in the development of a nation, the federal government of Nigeria had taken steps towards the professionalization of the teaching occupation. This initiative of repositioning and sanitizing teaching as a noble profession productively culminated in the establishment of Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN). This regulatory body is saddled with the responsibility to regularise and sustain the occupation. It is important to note that with the establishment of TRCN and the establishment of teachers’ code of conduct, the teaching profession is sure to be professionally equipped for tremendousenviable operational exploits.
After all, one of the basic features of a profession is theestablishment of code of conduct for its members. Tonna and Calleja (9) say “All professionals are proud to have a professional code of ethics which is a most important identifying feature of their profession“. These codes are meant to be understood and are to guide members in all aspects of their professional dealings. Thus, we may reiterate that ethics are documented professional values which are meant to safeguard the behaviour of members of a profession. This implies that codes are contained in a professional policy document meant to be referred to, consulted and esteemed.
To this end, The Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics arecontained in TRCN’ Code of conduct, first published in 2004. In this study, the researcher carries out textual analysis of these codes and ethics. The researcher randomly selects forty-five (45) clauses and clause complexes, without adjusting their original phraseology, and analyzed them using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistic (SFL) theory. The understudied unabridged clauses are presented and analyzed in accordance with the specifications of the three meta-functions of the Systemic Functional Linguistic theory. These three meta-functions of language use and analysis include: Ideational,Interpersonal and Textual Meta functions where the structure and functional meanings are anaysed. The researcher is motivated by linguistic, professional and social factors to embark on this huge study of examining the structures and functional meanings of the Nigerian teachers’ codes in order to ascertain why the codes are sometimes misinterpreted or misapplied by some teachers. These factors are fully discussedunder Statement of the Problem.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
Even as the argument surrounding professionalization of the teaching profession continues to linger, with the establishment of Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria in 2004, things are beginning to take shape. One of the primary responsibilities of TRCN is to register qualified teachers. TRCN is also charged with other responsibilities such as setting up teachers’ code of conduct, Teachers Investigation Panel (TIP), Teachers Disciplinary Committee (TDC), and other upgrading and empowerment responsibilities. The primary responsibility of TIP is to conduct preliminary investigations regarding any allegations of misconduct and decide whether or not to refer the case to Teachers Disciplinary Committee (TDC). The TDC is a tribunal which is responsible for considering and determining any case referred to it by The TIP.
Conversely, while the arrangement seems functionally pertinent at some point, it is wholly gratifying to observe thatthere is no committee or body established for the interpretation of these codes of conduct to teachers. Thus, there is need for interpretation of the Nigerian teachers’ ethical codes. This research, though a scholarly study, may clearly project and at least draw the attention of TRCN body to the invaluable aspect of interpretation of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics. Besides, there are always reported cases of violation of teachers’ codes by some teachers. Some analysts do attribute this professional misconduct on misinterpretation and misapplication. The researcher is motivated by this factor to attempt interpreting the codes and to find out why the codes are misinterpreted by some teachers.
Also, while much has been done on the discourses of Law, Accounting, Sermons, Medical profession, and so on, little is done in discourse linguistics regarding the Nigerian teaching profession, specifically, textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes. The problem, then, is that this area of discourse has suffered linguistic negligence for years bydiscourse analysts because not many of them seem to be interested in exploring the terrain. Therefore, this research aims at bridging the scholarly gap by venturing into a study ontextual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics theory. The research undertakes this part in order to draw the attention of discourse linguists to the ‘virgin’ terrain of the discourse of Nigerian teachers’ codes as the researcher hopes to stimulate subsequent prolific researches in the area. However, in order to achieve success in the study, there are certain questions the researcher sets to answer in the course of the research.
1.3. Research Questions
In line with what the researcher sets out to do and how he desires to achieve it as specified in statement of the problem, the research work tries to answer the following questions:
i. How does the researcher desire to carry out the analysis?
ii. How suitable is M.A.K. Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics to the study‘?
iii. What are the meta-functions of the Nigerian Teachers’ codes and ethics?
iv. What are the structures of clauses used in the Nigerian Teachers’ codes and ethics?
v. What are the structures of clause complexes used in the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics?
vi. What is the functional message of the Nigerian teachers’ code and ethics‘?
These research questions guide the research work and fundamentally specify what the researcher intends to do and how the searcher desires to go about it, and these research questions either shape or are shaped by the aims and objectives of the study.
1.4. Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study is to do textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics. Textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics explores, describes and interprets the functional message that is contained in TRCN teachers’ code of conduct. In the study, the researcher aims at carrying out a qualitative study of the discourse of Nigerian teachers’ codes using Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) by specificallyassimilating the principal echelons such as material, form, and context of the teaching profession discourse.
In carrying out the above, the researcher takes into cognizance, the purpose of the text or discourse, the period of the text and the audience of the text. Also, the researcher takes into account the organic structure of the text. As a result, the researcher considers the narrative structure, the interactionamong elements and the context. Finally, the researcher examines the effectiveness or otherwise of the text presentation and the techniques employed. These objectives are itemized as follows:
i. To carry out a qualitative analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics.
ii. To apply Michael Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics in the analysis of the Nigerian Teachers’ code.
iii. To analyze the meta-functions of Nigerian Teachers’ code.
iv. To classify and analyze the clauses of the Nigerian Teachers” code.
v. To classify and analyze clause complexes of the Nigerian Teachers’ code.
vi. To interpret the functional message contained in the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics.
As it may be seen and as expressed earlier, the researcher aims at examining the techniques of the text; assessing whether or not the linguistic structure of the text achieves the purpose of the text; and whether or not the techniques employed are suitable for the intended audience. Above all, the researcher aims at achieving the objectives of the study using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics. It may be clear from the above that there is so much the research is meant to have covered; however, due to limitation in research resources, timeand tools, the researcher has defined the areas the research will cover and this is captured in details under scope of the study.
1.5. Scope of the Study
Based on what the researcher sets to accomplish and as exemplified in the number and quality of questions the study tries to answer, the scope of the research is almost readily mapped out. However, a textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics is a linguistic study. Distinctively, it is a study in the field of discourse analysis where a textual analysis of written discourse on TRCN teachers’ codes and ethics is carried out using qualitative approach. The study centres on the Nigerian teachers’ codes only. The Nigerian teachers’ ethics are professional standards of operation or conduct enshrined in a document meant to guide the behaviour of the Nigerian teachers. These professional ethics are contained in the TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct.
Thus, the study draws data from TRCN teachers’ professional code of Conduct as contained in Teachers’ Code of Conduct, first published, 2004.The researcher used 2013Revised Edition. These codes are binding on all teachers across Nigeria both in private and public schools. This entails that theresearch is not necessarily a field research where questionnaires and interviews are required. However, the researcher uses secondary data from different sources in the course of the study.
Also, in the text, the research work centers on the analysis of some selected clauses and clause complexes of the codes. For instance, for the purpose of convenience in terms of effective data presentation and analysis, 45 clauses and clause complexes are randomly selected from the text and analyzed using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics theory. Apart from the TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct which constitutes a major source of data, the researcher draws data from textbooks, journals and the internet. In a nutshell, the study is an analysis of the written discourse of TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct whose copies are on-line and in print sources. On this note, itmay be clear from the statement of the problem, research questions and what the researcher sets out to do that the inevitability and importance of this research cannot be overemphasised. The details of the importance of the study areclearly explained under significance of the study.
1.6. Significance of the Study
Yourse analysts to Nigerian teachers’ ethics.
Also, as a document that analyses Nigerian teachers’ code and ethics, the study is also pragmatically useful or beneficial to Nigerian teachers. After all, at the moment, TRCN has no special body that interprets these codes and ethics to the newly recruited teachers. This document, on a special request, could be recommended by TRCN for their new teachers. On this note, the study may be a solution to some teachers who misinterpret or misapply the codes as a result of misconstruction. Therefore, the significance of this study is that apart from the general knowledge it adds to discourse analysis, the study analyses the intended meaning of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics by describing the structure of the codes and drawing their functional meanings. This profoundelucidation is relatively supportive to the members of the teaching profession. Finally, other studies in the field of discourse may benefit from this research in that the researcher reviews related literature, where opinions and contributions of other researchers in the field of discourse on relevant topics are revisited and re-examined. Details of their scholarly ideas and submissions are captured in the next chapter of the study.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. Preamble
This chapter reviews key discourse concepts that are related to the research work. The review captures Linguisticsareas such as textual analysis, discourse analysis, discourse and semantics, discourse and ideology, discourse, text and texture. Other discussions review context and register, lexicology and grammar, phonology and graphology, the clause, the clause complex, coherence, cohesion, theme, rheme, thematic progression, the teaching profession, ethical codes, and theoretical framework.
2.1. Conceptual Review
Textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethicsexplores, describes and interprets the functional message that is contained in the regulations and expectations of the TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct. Of course, “the greatest and most abiding difficulty about human communication is that it is human” (Quirk, 9). Therefore, the distinctive media features of human communication are the intelligible complex vocalization and the structured orthographic conventionality. In other words, human communication is replete with encoded vocal utterances and logical graphic inscriptions. What this means is that human communication is characteristicallycomplex because it is shrouded with shared ideologies, cultural values, and experiences of the speech participants. Sometimes, these sociolinguistic milieus of the language users, contexts,and variety of purposes constitute semantic undertone in a given linguistic interaction.
Therefore, analysing a text or discourse (in the sense of their common shared implication) requires a suitable research principle that will cater for the said involvedness of human communication. In as much as there are many linguistic theories, there seems to be none with inherent analytical mechanisms that provide encompassing research tools to guidethrough communication study and discourse analysis.However, the researcher employs Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) for the study.
Significantly, Nigerian Teachers’ Code of Conduct is a professional document that contains codes and ethics of the teaching profession in Nigeria. The document spells out explicitly the general pedagogical work etiquettes regardingwhat is acceptable and what is not acceptable. This chapter of the study reviews documented views of researchers on teachers’ codes and ethics and scholarly opinions regarding other research-related areas such as Textual Analysis, Discourse Analysis, Discourse and Semantics, Discourse and Ideology, Discourse and Text, Text and Texture, and Text and Register. Other topics reviewed in this chapter include: Lexicology and Grammar, the Clause and Grammatical Mood, Phonology and graphology, and Theoretical framework. As mentioned earlier, the research theory employed for the study is Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics. The review of theoretical framework covers especially the significant tenets of the theory that the researcher finds substantially applicable.
2.1.1. Textual Analysis
Tracing the inception of textual analysis, most scholars are of the estimation that “textual analysis comes from the work of researchers, theorists known as the French structuralists in the 1960s particularly the work of Roland Barthes” (Ayoub, 15). Since its inception in the 1960s, textual analysis has received many linguists attention. However, McKee grumbles that “textual analysis is the central methodology of Cultural Studies; and yet we do not have available a single, published straightforward guide as to what it is and how we do it” (138). McKee may be right and sincere in this opinion. That is why he has this casual view that “when we perform textual analysis on a text, we make an educated guess at some of the most likely interpretations that might be made of that text” (140). The problem with this huge assumption is that the intellectual tasks involved in carrying out a textual analysis of a text are far more than mere educated guesses. For instance, Norman (184) regards textual analysis as embodying two complementary types of analysis, namely: linguistic and intertextual. Linguistic analysis according to Norman relates to the traditional levels of analysis within linguistics and various aspects of the structure of texts beyond the sentence. On the other hand, intertextual analysis arbitrates between language and social contexts (184). When we subject a text to these critical linguistic experiments, we apparently engage in staid intellectual exercises that transcend mere guesses at text meaning or interpretations.
Notwithstanding, after its inception in 1960s, apart from McKee, many scholars conceive textual analysis from different perspectives. For instance, Morris considers it as a qualitative research method that “describes, interprets and evaluates the characteristics of a recorded message” with a view toascertaining how an author encodes meaning in the text (163). Even though, Morris (163) constricts the precincts of textual analysis to a measly evaluation of recorded message, he informs us about the job that a textual analyst does. From hisperspective, a textual analyst arrives at meaning by assessing the features of a recorded speech (and by extension written text). What this means is that a researcher undertaking a textual analysis of a text fulfills his assignment by examining the various components of the text especially from the various language units. Ogunsiji (266) refers to these language units as levels which according to him encapsulate: “substance, form and context.” Paraphrasing what Tomori (44-45) says, Ogunsiji elucidates that “Substance is made up of the phonic and the graphic materials of language …; form incorporates grammar and lexis while context relates language form to the non-linguistic features” (266).
Similarly, there are other views and scholars who have also tried to explain the concept of textual analysis. For instance, McKee again attempts another definition and this time he considers textual analysis as “a methodology, a data gathering way for researchers to understand the different cultures and how members of various cultures and subcultures make sense of who they are” (1). This definition seems to be encompassing because of its emphasis on techniques and method of data collection as well as its reference to language and culture. We may realise now that textual analysis entails more than a research tool or language methodology. However, methodology is requisite because when we espouse textual analysis of a text, we are looking for a way or method of finding possible interpretations or decoding the meaning of the text.
In line with the above, Ayoub appear to agree with him when they say that “textual analysis is decoding process by reading the signs within the text” (15). In fact, Fursich appears to be precisely more cogent when he says textual analysis“allows the researcher to discern latent meaning, but also implicit patterns, assumptions and omissions of a text” (241).Of course, while meaning encoding from a text may sound so wide-ranging, there seems to be justifiable validity of the definition because in every attempt to carry out textual analysis of a discourse, meaning is encoded. Potter (63) succinctly captures that the business of textual analysis closely relates tohow texts “define culture”. This means that textual analysis is one of the ways of understanding culture of a profession, group, and people as reflected in the discourse of their text.
Progressively, we may confirm that textual analysis is a method of study that examines a text from three dimensions, namely: qualitative text analysis, quantitative text analysis, and (recently) computer assisted textual analysis. According to Smith quantitative textual analysis relates to content analysis in the use of numerical counting to ascertain how frequently certain linguistic properties occur in a text (2). This means that quantitative textual analysis uses positivist tradition in text assessment or description. On the other hand, citing Deetz (1977) Smith agrees that qualitative textual analysis focuses “on an interpretive paradigm that seeks to shed light on the ways knowledge itself is situated within social contexts”(3).This approach entails more than just looking at how frequently language units occur in a text, but rather focuses on the functional use of language. However, recently “software programs such as DICTION and TAPoR are designed to facilitate quantitative textual analysis, while others such as NVivo and ATLASti cater toward qualitative methods” (Smith, 5). These are examples of computer assisted textual analysis. We should note that sometimes textual analysts combine these methodologies in a study of a text in order to have a more balanced and objective analysis.
Thus, we may say that textual analysis is a research method that requires the researcher to focus more on the content of communication rather than the structure of the content. Whereas in content analysis the researcher represents meaning on a set of tables and graphs to account for the number of times linguistic properties occur in the text, textualanalysis is a qualitative study where the goal is to drive a better meaning of the text holistically by carefully piecing thought units or smaller elements. As a result, rather than customarilyassigning numbers to sample units, a textual analyst reads profoundly and makes efforts to discern the meaning of the text as a whole and what is crucially typical about it. This means that a textual analyst attempts to disclose noticeable and subtle meaning of the studied text. Therefore, in this study the business of the researcher is to consciously attempt a revelation and construction of both noticeable and subtle meaning of discourse of the Nigerian teachers’ code of conduct. It is worthy of note that the study is in the field of discourseanalysis and our next review is on discourse analysis.
2.1.2. Discourse Analysis
As mentioned earlier, textual analysis of teacher’s codes and ethics is a study in the discipline of discourse analysis. Matthew defines discourse as “any succession of sentences, spoken or written“(100). This meaning of discourse as any written or spoken sentences in succession seems to reduce the precincts of discourse by setting it on equal pedestal with text. Meanwhile, discourse appears to have more coverage than a text. Tracing the proponents of the field of discourse analysis,Thompson explains that “within linguistics the term ‘discourse analysis‘ is often associated with authors such as Harris and Halliday whose writings for many years overshadowed by those of Chomsky, are becoming the object of renewed attention” (98). Reviewing the ideas of Taylor (5), Adjei (1)concurs that as a sub-discipline of linguistics, discourse analysis is primarily concerned with “language in use.” This means that discourse analysis is an approach to language study that focuses on the use of discourse in society and the role context plays in the interpretation of any discourse.
In other words, while linguists concentrate on the formal properties of a language, discourse analysts examine the function of language within a given context. According toStubbs “any study which is not dealing with single sentences, contrived by the linguist, out of context, may be called discourse analysis” (131). Stubbs’ view is that the meaning of language transcends beyond the meaning of individual sentences or phrases. However, the truth is that discourse analysts sometimes pick individual sentences in a text and analyse them in context and out of context. That is why Leech confirms that “the true meaning of a sentence can‘t be assigned by only its linguistic construction but it largely depends on reference, sense and force (76).
All these views point to the fact that discourse analysis is an aspect of linguistics that is concerned with how we build up meaning in larger communication, rather than in single grammatical units. It then follows that discourse analysis centres on connected speech whether spoken or written. Therefore, in discourse analysis attempt should be on tracing the meaning of structures beyond the sentence or clause levels. The essential harmony of a variety of views is that meaning is the central part of any discourse and the duty of a discourse analyst is to reveal or construct this meaning. This centrality of meaning in discourse summarises the inseparable relationship between discourse and semantics.
2. 1. 3. Discourse and Semantics
Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics has three meta-functions, namely: interpersonal meta-functions, ideational meta-functions and textual meta-Functions. Eggins’ summary of Systemic Functional Linguistics offers that human language has developed to make three kinds of meanings,namely: experiential meanings (clause as representation), interpersonal meaning (clause as exchange), and textual meanings (clause as message) (58-59). In dealing with meaning and context, Halliday & Hassan emphasise that “Systemic functional grammar analyzes the semantics of a language and the situational contexts in which the language is used in such a way that each serves to predict the other” (45).
These opinions show how meaning and context are related in discourse analysis. For instance, Semantics is the highest stratum within language; it serves as an interface between language and the environment outside language (Halliday and Hassan, 61). This implies that semantics interfaces with context, but not only with context that operates within context (Halliday and Hassan, 61). As the upper of the two content strata within language, semantics is the border between context and lexico-grammar. It also transforms experience and interpersonal relationships into linguistic meaning. And lexico-grammar transforms this meaning into words, adopting the speaker’s perspective, at the same time; it is organized externally as a unit operating in context where the structure ofthe context of situation operates (Halliday and Hassan, 62).Thus, one may conclude that the meaning of the world and how society views it; their social beliefs and ideologies are all reflected in their discourses and this illustrates the paramount interconnectivity between discourse and ideologies in people’s written or spoken discourses.
2.1.4. Discourse and Ideology
Even though ideology is a concern of Critical Discourse Analysis, it plays a major role in everyday discourse. Alba-Juez (189) believes that “discourse is the medium by which ideologies are communicated in society, thereby reproducing the power and domination of certain groups”. This means that power relation is reflected in communicated ideologies of a group discourse. That is why Van-Dijk is convinced that “ideologies are developed by dominant groups in order to reproduce and legitimate their domination” (25). These ideas are pointing to a notion that ideologies do not exist in the vacuum. They are passed on from generations to generationsthrough discourse; either written or spoken. Streadfold says ideologies or ideas “are produced and reproduced as spoken or written utterances, in verbal or other media” (16). In this case, one seems to agree with Streadfold when he observes that linguistics has often failed to concern itself with the crucial relationship between meanings, contexts and realisations which are central to the study of language and ideology.
To study ideology is then always, in some sense, to study the ways in which language and meaning are used in everyday forms of social interaction (Streadfold, 15-16). Alba-Juez concludes that “ideologies are both social systems and mental representations” (190). This means that ideologies involve belief systems that reproduce both social function and cognitive function. In other words, Alba-Juez further explains “ideologies are the mental representations that form the basis of social cognition” (190). By social cognition, Van-Dijk means “the shared knowledge and attitudes of a group” (29). This shared knowledge and attitudes in turn replicate the specific beliefs of the members of a group, which finally form the basis of discourse (Alba-Juez, 190).
Therefore, a theory of language as social semiotic,language and ideology should encompass or treat language as a form of social interaction; a meaning potential in and through which subjects and the social interactions are constructed and reproduced where cultural and human conflict are negotiated (Streadfold, 16). According to Van-Dijk, in ideologicaldiscourse analysis we may want to examine texts with propositions that are asserted or presupposed to be true or to be taken for granted, and presented as knowledge (l32). Indeed, it is almost impossible to utter or write a sentence of any magnitude without making any sort of assumptions that presupposes valid interpretations (Beltalo, 153).
This means that presupposition is the basic linguistic feature of human language and interaction. Bekalo classifies presupposition into two, namely: pragmatic and conventional presupposition. He notes the difference between the two and explains that pragmatic presupposition is non-linguistic and concerns the context in which the utterance has been used while conventional presupposition is linguistic and text-free (152). Context in this case may reveal that speakers assert or presuppose such knowledge as group members who share the same ideological beliefs.
Besides, Thompson says “ideology operates through a complex series of mechanisms whereby meaning is mobilized in the discursive practices of everyday life for the maintenance of relations of domination” (64). It is this shared knowledge and ideological principles that are the bases of presupposition and which are also reflected in the discourse of the group. After all, Trew argues that discourse is a field of both ideological processes and linguistic processes and that is why linguistic theory can be used to disclose the ideological process at work (Bekalo, 154). This review on discourse and ideology is so important to the study on textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ code of conduct which is an embodiment ofideological practices and professional ethics encapsulated in a written discourse or text.
2.1.5. Discourse and Text
Text and discourse are perhaps used in very erratic scope. This unpredictability appears to be as a result of “various conceptions, degrees of abstraction, and types of oppositions” (Tárnyiková, 19). As a result, “some scholars identify text with written language communication, and discourse with spoken communication” (Tárnyiková, 19). For instance, Alba-Juez (16) candidly says “the term text is restricted to written language, while discourse is restricted to spoken language”.However, modern Linguistics reviews text from a broader perspective. For instance, according to Alba-Juez (16), text is reconsidered to include “every type of utterance; therefore a text may be a magazine article, a television interview, a conversation or a cooking recipe, just to give a few examples”.This notion interchangeably places text side by side with discourse.
Meanwhile, there are scholars who view text as an abstract construct (langue), while discourse its manifestation(parole). However, explaining the similarity between text and discourse, Longacre (337) claims that what he calls discourse is called text in Europe (Tárnyiková, 19). In Van-Dijk’s perception (3), text is “the abstract theoretical construct underlying what is usually called a discourse.” Tárnyiková quotes Widdowson’s differentiation of the two terms when he says – text is characterised as “sentences in combination”, while discourse as the “use of sentences in combination” (19).These views seem not to be self-explanatory, given the technical nature of the two concepts in question, especially to beginners in the field.
However, we may agree with Tárnyiková (21) who sums up that “text and discourse have gradually come closer to each other as a result of the expansion of the scope of the notion of text … to cover both spoken and written modes of communication”. Based on this expansion, text is defined from different perspectives. Tárnyiková summaries these various perspectives of text as follow: text as a structured sequence forming a unitary whole; text as a stretch of spoken or written language; text as an incremental building of propositions; text as a poly-predicative segment; and text as the abstract theoretical construct underlying a discourse (21). The most important aspect of text is the interconnectedness of structure and ideas. This is what Halliday refers to as texture.
2.1.6. Text and Texture
Text and discourse analysis aim at the actual language in use. Even though so much has already been reviewed on text but not exhausted, so we shall still to talk more. Crane, quoting Halliday‘s definition, regards text as “any authentic stretch of written or spoken language“(131). This view seems to disregard the disparity between text and discourse on the basis of mode as other scholars claim. Halliday and Hassan in another perception, consider a text in its broadest term to be a “language that is functional” (10). This entails the relationship that language has with culture. In other words, language reflects cultural features that are embedded in the functional structures of the language. This explains why Chouliaraki and Fairclough consider all texts to be “channels for socially driven changes in the language system” (141). There are three components of text that influence the final structure of the sentence when it becomes a part of the text. These componentsinclude: the intra-textual, inter-textual and extra-textual (Tárnyiková, 16). Apart from components, text also involves Hierarchical and relational aspects of the structure Tárnyiková (17). The relational aspect is associated with the meaning of connections; while the hierarchical aspect reflects the dominance of one segment of the text over the other (Tárnyiková, 17). Juez accepts that De Beaugrande and Dressler “present a broader view; they define text as a communicative event that must satisfy the following criteria” – cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality, and intertextuality (16 – 17). Texture comes in when all these components of text work together and contribute to a holistic build up.
This explains why texture makes any length of discourse meaningful and coherent. Crane has an opinion that “texture is the basis for unity and semantic interdependence … a text without texture would just be a group of isolated sentences with no relationship to one another” (131). That is why Lyons says “a text as a whole must exhibit the related but distinguishable properties of cohesion and coherence” (198). Eggins agrees with the terms put forth by Schetloff and Sacks – “sequential implicativeness”. According to him, these terms propose that language follows a linear sequence where one line of text follows another with each line being linked or related to the previous line (85). It implies that this linear progression is what creates context of meaning and specifically context of situation.
It is worthy of note that text is realized through texture. Texture itself is attained through coherence and cohesion. Coherence is simply the textual meaning at the paragraph level while the internal properties of meaning point to cohesion. According to Crane (132), “sentence in text is provided by grammar therefore cohesion is considered to be outside of the structure”. Halliday and Hassan consider cohesion to be the “non-structural text-forming relations“(7). It then follows that the concept of cohesion in text is related to semantics that exists in a text, and which defines it as a text.
Furthermore, cohesion in texts creates a kind of texture through the ties that coordinate ideas that form the texture. That is, cohesion is the link that holds a text together and gives it a meaning. On the other hand, coherence is grammatical and semantic interconnectedness between sentences that form a text. This view is similar to that of Halliday and Hassan who expound that “coherence occurs where the interpretation of one depends on another” (4). Texts are connected together through cohesive ties. We should recall at this point that the concept of cohesive ties encapsulates forms such as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. Juez’s opinion regarding text and texture is cogent to round off this section with, when he points out that “the text-internal elements constitute the text, while the text-external ones constitute the context” (17).
2.1.7. Context and Register
Context is paramount in discourse analysis. A text in Halliday’s terminology is a chunk of language that is actually communicated in spoken or written form by real people in actual circumstances (Bloor and Bloor, 4). This is because meaning is determined by examining context and contextual clues. Gratuna and Kallmeyer (8) say “Contextuality establishes references to frames of interpretation which may be located within the actual text or interactional unit but also establishes links to a wide range of discourse events”. Firth, following Malinowski, classifies context into two; referring to the broader context as context of culture, and the specific context as context of situation (Graber, 20).This means that in addition to the context of culture, which is the general context that gives meaning to culturally recognized activities, a text is produced in a specific context of situation, that is, the instantial situation.
On the other hand, Biber points out that “one major approach to discourse analysis focuses on the study of language use, describing the ways in which lexical and grammatical features are used in texts” (191). Biber goes on to specify that “the description of a register involves … the situational context, the typical linguistic features, and the functional relationships between the first two components”(191). Moreover, Biber emphasises “the linguistic description of a register requires quantitative analysis to identify the features that are ‘typical’” (191).
In systemic theory, choices made on the level of genre are realized by configurations of context-of-situation variables. These variables or aspects of the context of situation embedded in a text are referred to in systemic Functional grammar as the register plane. The register variables are field, tenor, and mode (Graber, 11). According to Almurashi, Halliday models the context of situation in terms of three important strands called register as follows:
Field: this mentions the topic or what is being talked about (textual meta-function)
Tenor: this portrays those who are involved in the communication (interpersonal meta-function)
Mode: this gives an indication of what part language is playing in the interaction and what form it takes – written or spoken – (ideational meta-function) (73).
Thus, like Tomori explains, “context relates language form to the non-linguistic features” (Ogunsiji, 266). Systemic functional linguistics describes the formal and the situational dimensions of language. At the situational level, contextual variables are anaysed. Meanwhile, description at the formal level concerns patterns such as phonology/graphology, grammatical and lexico-semantic. That is to say that Systemic functional linguistics is concerned with both structural and functional meaning of a text (Ogunsiji, 267).
2.1.8. Lexicology and Grammar
In Functional linguistics, meaning is realized through appropriate linguistic choices. This entails a clear relationship between meaning and structure. Therefore, it is imperative to elucidate from the start that “grammar and vocabulary are not two separate workings of a language on the two ends of a single linguistic continuum” (Halliday and Matthiessen, 25). In other words, there is another level of grouping in language to which both the sound system and the writing system are related. This is the level of wording, or ‘lexico-grammar’. The lexico-grammar of a language is represented, or realized at the level of the sound system and the writing system. This relationship is captured in SFL to be Phono-graphology.(Halliday and Mattienssen, 25).
According to Almurashi “lexico-grammar includes both grammar and vocabulary in one stratum and represents the view of language in both lexis and grammar” (73). However, “grammar is the level at which the various strands of meaning potential are woven into a fabric; … the level at which the different meaning selections are integrated so as to form structures” (Halliday and Matthiensen, 93). However, meaning selection here is at the level of paradigmatic relations. That is why Bavali and Sadighi distinguish that “grammar could be seen as knowledge of either paradigmatic relations or syntagmatic relations” (12). A linguistic structure is said to be syntagmatic when it contains a linear sequence. On the other hand, paradigmatic structures occur when there are potential substitutes for their similarly-positioned counterparts within the given phenomena (Bavali and Sadighi, l2). This selection substitutes the lexico-grammar of the language. Cross is also of the opinion that “the semantic-lexico-grammar preselectionresource provides the interface between the semantics of the text and the Lexico-grammar” (17).
Gurdeep provides a breakdown that is relevant to us when he says that “The Lexico-Grammar concerns the syntactic organization of words into utterances … involving analysis of the utterance in terms of roles such as Actor, Agent/Medium,Theme, Mood, etc” (263). Clarence~Funchan concludes that“the relation between the semantics and the grammar is one of realisation: the word ‘realises’, or encodes, the meaning” (24).
To sum up, a hearer or reader recovers the speaker’s or writer’s meaning by interpreting the choices of lexical items, and the ways in which these are arranged. This perspective of analysis moves away from grammar structure to the consideration of grammar as system that enables us to showgrammar as a meaning-making resource. From this perspective,lexico-grammar constitutes the clause as the main unit of analysis. Halliday and Matthiessen note that “the clause is the central processing unit in the lexico-grammar … it is in the clause that meanings of different kinds are mapped into an integrated grammatical structure” (25). It is important to note that this meaning is built into lexico-grammar through the grammar of phonology and graphology. For instance, letters and sounds are built into the writing system. Thus, while grammar is at the higher level of the clause, phonology and graphology constitute minimal level of discourse analysis.
2.1.9. Phonology and Graphology
Phonology refers to the sound system of a language. On the other hand, graphology is the linguistic study of the writing system or orthography. Phonology and graphology comprise the sounds and letters of the language. Halliday notes that the pattern of sounds and letters are complex and “there is no one-to-one correspondence between options in the grammar and options in the phonology” (94). For instance, graphology particularly deals with how the text is organized as a system of written symbols. However, Gomez-Jimenez (71) looks at it as a distinct level of discourse study when he says “graphology is a linguistic level of analysis that comprises the study of graphic aspects of language”.
A more encompassing definition is the one given by Halliday (50) as cited by Gomez-Jimenez (73). According to them, “the term includes orthography, punctuation, and anything else that is concerned with showing how a language uses its graphic resources to carry its grammatical and lexical patterns”. This equates graphology with all the graphic properties of a written text as it appears on paper. Matthiessen(112) suggest that graphology is a “stratum within expression plane (the alternative to phonology): the stratum of ‘writing’ realizing the stratum of ‘wording’.”
Phonology according to Opara (124) is “the study of how speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language”. In other words, “it acts as a link between the substance of a language and its form” (Halliday, 244). Breaking the concept down in details, Halliday and Matthiessen reveal further that “the units of phonology are organized from largest to smallest according to the phonological rank scale – tone group (melodic line), foot (rhythm group), syllable, and phoneme” (30). This analysis suggests variation in phonology. A kind of variation in the sounds of language Opara (124) says “can be subdivided into pitch, quality, loudness and length”. In other words, there is what we can call phonological units which are divided into two regions of articulation and prosody. Opara (125) explains that “Prosodies are suprasegmental sounds, such as, pitch, melody, tempo, pause, rhythm, stress and these, work together with segmental sounds”. This is true because prosodic properties are larger units such as intonation, rhythm and other suprasegmental features. Halliday and Matthiessen note that articulatory Features are associated with smaller units, typically vowels and consonants. The gateway between the two regions is the syllable. It realizes prosodic features and composesarticulatory gestures (30). That is why Adetugbo (70) seems not to be far from exactitude when he defines a syllable as “a unit of pronunciation larger than a single sound but smaller than a word”. In textual analysis, Leech and Short say “graphology is an alternative form of realization to phonology” (Ogunsiji, 267). This is so because phonological features though germane in a written text, they are said to be remote.
To sum, Phono-graphology is a sub-system of the Systemic Functional Linguistics which expatiate the syntax of phonology and graphology. Phono-graphology, in a narrow sense, rolls into lexicology and grammar and this relationship culminates to meaning that is built and interpreted in given contextual units such as clauses or sentences.
2.1.10. The Clause
Matthiessen (71) define a clause as a “grammatical unit of the highest rank on the lexicogrammatical rank scale.” In its thematic structure, a clause has requisite information that covers at least the two constituents of Theme and Rheme. This is called textual meaning in Systemic Functional Linguistics. In SFL, “the structure of clause consists of two components, such as verbal group which represents the process, and noun group which represents participant” (Nuristiana 131). Matthiessen(71) aver that “the clause can be characterized in trinocular terms “from above”, “from below” and “from roundabout.” A clause can also have meaning as a message. From this perspective, Hicks (20) defines a clause as “a group of words including a subject and a verb forming part of a sentence”. Subject is equated with Theme and in SFL; Theme is seen as the point of departure of the message. That is, the ground from which the clause is taking off. On the other hand, Rheme, which is synonymous with predicate, is the message or discussion about the theme. In other words, Theme is what Hick calls “subject” while Rheme he refers to as the verb part. In a finite clause, Theme is explicit but in the non-finite clause, in which the verb is not conjugated in number and person with the subject, Theme is hidden but can be recovered in the context.
The clause is at the center of actions in the grammar where fundamental choices of meanings are made. According to Halliday, as cited by Arunsirot (163) textual meta-function is realized through thematic structure, information structure and cohesion. Thematic structure includes Theme and Thematic progression patterns, information structure includes given and new units of information and cohesion includes reference, conjunction, ellipsis and lexical cohesion. Paltridge (2006) as cited by Arunsirot (165) “interpersonal Theme refers to an item that comes before the Rheme which indicates the relation between participants in the text, or the position or point of view that is being taken in the clause”. On the other hands, Topical Theme, that is ideational theme, is the element which refers to a participant, a circumstance or the process of the clause. Arunsirot explains further that “topical Themes are divided into two subtypes: simple and multiple Theme” (165).
The simple Theme is group into unmarked and markedTheme. Simple marked Theme refers to when a topical element is chosen for foregrounding while simple unmarked Theme refers to that which is most usual (Arunsirot, 165). Dorri (32) says “if the theme of a clause is unmarked, it means that the theme is the normal and usual choice”. That is to say that the unmarked theme occurs in declarative clauses where the subject is also the focus. Halliday clarifies that “a theme that is something other than the Subject, in a declarative clause, we shall refer to as a MARKED THEME” (44). Schmid classifies marked themes into three, namely: passivization, cleft and pseudo-cleft, and adjunct fronting (Dorri, 32).
A clause also has meaning as an exchange. That is, interpersonal meta-function according to Systemic Functional Linguistics. The key element of meaning as exchange in SFL is the system of mood. “Mood element has a clear defined semantic function; it carries the burden of clauses as an interactive event“(Halliday, 120). What this means is that Mood is organized as an interactive event involving a speaker, or a writer, and an audience. By implication, the Function of a clause in this sense is realized through Mood and Modality. Just like in the case of Theme in a finite clause, Mood is explicit while in a non-finite clause, Mood is non-explicit (Tam, 26).
In Systemic Functional Linguistics, at the level of interpersonal meta-function, the meaning of the clause is examined in the area of genre and register, that is, context of culture and context of situation. In this situation, textual meta-function at clause level is confined with theme and rheme. Theme is the starting point of the message and it is different from Subject and Actor. Rheme is the message of the clause.
Finally, a clause has meaning as a representation of human experience. The clause’s meaning at this level according to Systemic Functional Linguistics represents a pattern of experience through the system of “transitivity”. “Transitivity specifies the different types of process that are recognized in the language and the structures by which they are expressed” (Halliday, 101). Transitivity comprises processes, participants, and circumstances (Tam, 26). The processes include: material, mental, relational, behaviour, verbal, and existential processes.It is imperative to note that information in discourses is expressed in clauses and other complex units such as clause complexes.
2.1.11. The Clause Complex
Matthiessen (72) use the terms “clause complex” and “clause nexus” to mean “tactic combination of clauses formed through logico-semantic relations of projection and expansion.” This means that clause complexes are linked together by means of some kind of logico-semantic relations. This is where you have a super-ordinate clause compounding a subordinate clause. According to Nguyen, “in the clause complex, one clause is put next to the other so that the clause complex is still at the same rank as the clause” (28). We may not need so much review on clause and clause complexes because they are straightforward grammatical terms that did not attract so much linguistic controversy.
Opoku and Adjei (13) look at clause complex as “structural interdependency and semantic relationships of sentences which are of equal statuses or unequal statuses”. The conceptual ambiguity surrounding “structural interdependency of sentences” in the definition seems to have equated the status of clause complex with text. As a result, it appears to be safe to examine other scholarly views regarding the concepts of “clause complex”. To this end, Andersen and Holsting (2) conceive that a clause complex is “a grammatical construction consisting of two or more (simplex) clauses”. Andersen and Holsting apparently disambiguate the indistinctness encapsulated in Opoku and Adjei’s definition.
However, in Systemic Functional Linguistics, clause complex entails just having two or more clauses in a grammatical structure. That is why Arunsirot’s illustration becomes germane especially when he points out the structural constituents of a clause complex. He says “in clause complexes, the previous clause and the following clause are linked together by a textual Theme, for example the conjunction group as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘then’, ‘so’ and the relative nominal group ‘which’, ‘who’, ‘that’, ‘why’” (163). What this means is that these clauses are linked together by means of some kind of logico-semantic relations. This is where you have a super-ordinate clause encase a subordinate clause.
In a similar perspective, Tam agrees that “in a clause complex, one clause is put next to the other, so that the clause complex is still at the same rank as the clause” (28). We may say that a clause complex is a univariate structure where each functional element operates similarly with the other functional elements in the same unified structure. This is what Matthiessen mean when they say that in clause complex, “each new element is related to the previous one simply as the ‘next’ link in a series or chain” (235).
In systemic Functional Linguistics, there are two systems determining clauses within complex clauses, namely: taxis and logico-semantic relation. Andersen and Holsting (3) explain that “the lexicogrammatical system of TAXIS describes the relation between clauses according to their interdependency; two clauses may have equal status or unequal status”. Thus, taxis deals with the degree of interdependence between clauses in complex clause structures. There are two types of taxis, namely: Parataxis and Hypotaxis. If TAXIS have equal status, they are related through parataxis. In this case, clauses are numbered as 1, 2, 3, etc. on the other hand, if their status is unequal, they are related through Hypotaxis where the clauses are labelled as α, β, γ, etc. (Andersen and Holsting, 3).
This means that clause complex relations at this point constitute a correlation that is governed by superordinate configuration and subordinate entities. By implication, a “hypotactic clause complex (the α-clause) upholds the interpersonal status of a ‘free’ clause, while the subordinate clause in a hypotactic clause complex (the β-clause) has the status of a ‘bound’ clause” (Halliday and Matthiessen, 170).We may agree with Andersen and Holsting when they explain that “hypotactic and paratactic clause complexes go together in lexicogrammar because they share the same structural properties, and in the system for TAXIS … they are therefore considered agnates” (12).
To explain further, we may say that paratactic clauses relate as interdependent complex when they have equal status.Example:
He is a boy //and//she is a girl
On the other hand, hypotactic structures share unequal relations where one is dependent and the other is dominant. Example:
He is a boy //While she is a girl
According to Jomaa and Bidin (161) “logico-semantic relations are the main focus in the present study; they involve meanings of either projection or expansion by means of the secondary clause”. It is a lexicogrammatical system that organises clauses according to the ideational relation between them which can be relation of Projection or Expansion. While, in projection, the figurative meaning of one clause can project the figurative meaning of the related clause, in expansion the figurative meaning of one clause can be expanded by the figurative meaning of the related clause (Andersen and Holsting, 3). Expansion refers to the process of expanding the primary clause. This is done in three ways, namely: elaboration, extension, and enhancement.
Elaboration occurs in hypotactic complex when the elaborating clause exemplifies, specifies, comments, and restates in greater detail the initial clause. In this case, elaboration is normally signaled through non-restrictive relative clauses. The symbol “=” is used to signal Elaboration:Alvin (4) gives the example below:
1. ||| 1 The group Boney-I-Am recorded their first song ‘Got Kut’ in January 2002; // =2 it sold 13 copies world-wide. |||
Extension is a relation of addition that is realized by the conjunctions such as and, nor, but, and or where the extending clause adds something new, provides an exception, or offers an alternative. In other words, extension means adding something new (relationship of addition or variation), giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative (Halliday, 230).The symbol that is used as a pointer to this hypotactic relation is “+”. Alvin (3) gives the example below:
1. ||| α Boney-I-Am sang poorly, // +β being booed all the way. |||
2. ||| 1 Boney-I-Am sang poorly, // +2 and was booed off the stage. |||
Enhancement occurs when “the enhancing clause provides circumstantial features of time, place, cause/reason, condition, result, etc. Halliday (232) explains enhancement as “qualifying it in one of a number of possible ways (relations of time, space, cause, manner, condition)”.The symbol “x” is used to signal Enhancement” (Alvin, 3). He further gave the following examples:
1. ||| 1 Alvin wanted a band, // x2 so he formed Boney-I-Am. |||
2. ||| α Alvin formed Boney-I-Am, // xβ because he wanted a band. |||
Projection refers to the relationship of the clause regarding the verbal/mental act and the content of the act. This means that “in Projection, the secondary clause is projected through the primary clause” (Jomaa and Bidin, 161). Therefore, In Projection, two clauses are involved; one clause is projecting, whereas the other one is projected. Jomaa and Bidin elucidate that “the projecting clause involves either verbal or mental processes” (167). In other words, in Projection one clause reports or quotes another clause by involving either a locution (quoting speech) or an idea (reporting thoughts).
Locution concerns quoted or reported speech. “The symbol (“) is used to signal locution. The quoted or reported speech must be projected from a verbal process” (Alvin, 3). He also gives the following examples:
1. ||| “1 “Let’s record ‘Got Kut’!”// 2 Alvin declared. |||
2. ||| α Alvin declared // “β that we should record ‘Got Kut’.|||
Idea quoted or reported thought. “The symbol (‘) is used to signal Idea. The quoted or reported thought must be projected from a mental process” (Alvin, 3). He also gives the following examples:
1. |||‘1 “When will we win the coveted Plastic Lizard Award?” // 2 Alvin wondered. |||
2. |||α Alvin wondered // ‘β when they would win the coveted Plastic Lizard Award. |||
TABLE 1. Logico-semantic relations of clause complex (adapted from Halliday, 196-197)
| 1. Expansion | 2. Projection |
| a. Extensionb. Enhancementc. Elaboration1. Exposition2. Exemplification3. Clarificationd. Embedded expansionse. Acts | a. Quoting ‘direct speech’b. Reporting ‘indirect speech’ c. Reporting speech, quoting thoughtsd. Projecting offers and commandse. Free indirect speechf. Embedded locutions and ideasg. Facts |
Therefore, by rank scale, the clause complex is at the same rank as the clause. This means that the clause complex is not multivariate or made up of clauses, but is rather a clause that is, by iteration, extended through the addition of further clauses. This also explains why it is univariate structure where the same element is repeated. In this univariate structure, clauses linked by tactic and logico-semantic relations.
In paratactic structure, clauses are coordinated because they have an equal status unlike in the Hypotaxis where one clause is subordinated to a superordinate structure. Logico-semantic relations are achieved through expansion and projection. While expansion encompasses elaboration, extension, and enhancement, projection involves verbal, mental: quoting, and reporting. It is important to note that the meaning of a discourse does not only rely on the internal structures of clauses alone. At the textual level, clauses are structured to link one idea or structure with another. This relationship is facilitated by coherence and cohesion.
2.1.12. Cohesion and Coherence
Morris and Hirst (21) describe the unification property of cohesion when they say “sentences “stick together” to function as a whole” in a text when there is cohesion. This presupposes that the meaning of a text or discourse depends heavily on coherence and cohesion. Juez (224) expresses the importance of cohesion and coherence when he cites De Beaugrande & Dressler (1981) who say that “both cohesion and coherence form part of the seven criteria which are necessary to satisfy the definition of text”. Distinguishing between the two, Juez(224) conceives that “cohesion has to do with the relationships between text and syntax”, while “coherence has to do with the knowledge or cognitive structures that are implied by the language used and that contribute to the overall meaning of a given discourse”. In other words, coherence makes connections among elements in the text. Seidlhofer & Widdowson (1999) as cited by Juez (224) associate “cohesion to the concept of text and coherence to that of discourse”. This view presupposes the distinction the two scholars hold regarding the concepts oftext and discourse. However, they seem to be concerned with the opinion that cohesion is text-inclined and contextually connected with text properties. On the other hand, coherence is “the discourse function of realizing those connections, and is a discoursive property” (Juez, 224).
Halliday & Hasan (10) define cohesion as “the set of semantic resources for linking a SENTENCE with what has gone before”. Juez (225) explains that “some forms of cohesion are realized through the grammar and others through vocabulary”. Citing Halliday & Hasan, Juez (225) considerstwo main types of cohesion, namely: grammatical cohesionand lexical cohesion. Altogether, there are five forms of cohesion, namely: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion (Juez, 225).
Reference has to do with the resources for referring to an element which is recoverable such as pronouns, comparatives, adverbs here, then, and now (Juez, 225). In other words, reference is the relation between a newly-introduced element and the already mentioned element in the text. For instance, just as Juez (225) rightly mentioned the list includes personal pronouns (it, she, he), relative pronouns (who, which, that), demonstratives (that, those, this, those), and comparatives (more, less).
Substitution “refers to a set of place holders that are used to signal an omission (e.g. do for verbal groups or so for clauses)” (Juez, 225). Substitution occurs when reference is made to the same thing using different words to substitute the ones already mentioned usually to avoid unnecessary repetition. Examples in this category include: one, ones, the same, do, does, did etc.
Ellipsis is employed when there is omission of the element already used or mentioned in order to avoid repetition.According to Juez, ellipsis refers to resources for omitting a clause or part of a clause when it can be assumed (e.g.: She will go but I won’t, where go is omitted in the second clause because it is assumed) (225).
Conjunctions connect text spans instead of words. They link clauses in discourse. According to Halliday and Hasan, as summarised by Juez (229-230) conjunctions are classified into: additives (and, also, additionally, furthermore), causatives (because, since, so, then, therefore), adversative (but, however, yet, nevertheless), temporal (before, after, then), conditional (until, unless, if) continuative (well, of course).
Lexical cohesion is the “complement of grammatical cohesion, involving the repetition of lexical items, synonymy, hyponymy and collocation” (Juez, 225). Collocation is theregular co-occurrence of words, that is, words that go together in certain contexts.
However, much recent works have reconsidered the concept of cohesion. For instance, Martins (37) sees cohesion as “a set of discourse semantic systems at a more abstract level than lexicogrammar”. These semantic systems according to Martins (37-38) as summarised by Juez (226) include: Identification(concerned with resources for tracking participants in discourse), Negotiation (concerned with resources for exchange in dialogue), Conjunction (related with resources for connecting messages), and Ideation (dealt with the semantics of lexical relations).The relationship between a cohesive item and the item it presupposes in a text is what we call a cohesive tie.
Coherence deals with elements contributing to the meaning of the text as a whole. In other words, coherence ensures texture. De Beaugrande & Dressler note that “there is a continuity of senses among the knowledge activated by the expressions of the text” (84). According to Juez (227) “this continuity of senses is considered to be the foundation of coherence”. Drawing from different linguists, Juez (227) summarises that there are certain global patterns of knowledge and experience such as frames, schemas, plans or scripts, which we all store and activate to be explored when producing or receiving texts. Frames are set off when developing a topicand schemas when thinking of sequencing an event progress. Plans concern how text users or characters will pursue their goals, and scripts with how situations are set up so that certain texts can be presented at the right moment (Juez, 227-228).
Also, in governing the structure of a text coherence is concerned with key textual issues such as Intentionality (the writer’s purpose), Acceptability (the reader’s willingness to accept or respond to the text), Intertextuality (how the textrelates appropriately to other texts), Situationality (how the text relates appropriately to context), Informativeness (the suitability of the amount of information included) (Juez, 16).
Apart from coherence and cohesion, thematic progression in clauses also contributes to the unity of the text. There are binary identifiable portions of information represented in the two parts of a clause. The first part is called theme and the second part is rheme.
2.1.13. Theme and Rheme
Halliday (38) proposes that theme is given information that serves as “the point of departure” of a message. This means that theme is the take off information that provides foundational background for the second part of the clause. In other words, theme is like a “peg on which the message is hung” and that is why it “is put in the first position” (Halliday, 161). What this definition suggests is that theme is the most fundamentally influential part of the clause that determines the readers’ comprehension of the message of the clause.
Abed (77) avers that “the given information is the information which has already been mentioned somewhere in the text, or it is shared or mutual knowledge from the immediate context”. Such shared knowledge provides setting for new information. The new information in a clause is what is called rheme.
In other words, Rheme is the second part of the clause and the remainder or new information of a clause. Paraphrasing Yang (29) Abed (78) elucidates that “new information is knowledge that a writer assumes the reader does not know, but needs to have in order to follow the progression of the argument”. Cummings (133) explains that rheme is “part of the assembly of the new information that the text offers”. Eggins (300) says rheme is the part of the clause that develops the theme. When the theme of the clause is identified, rheme is easily recognized because rheme controls the message or information that develops the clause. Thus, the relationship between Theme and Rheme is that theme is the first and known information that occurs in a clause, while rheme is the remainder or unknown element in a clause. Paraphrasing Eggins (45), Abed (80) says “the exchange of information between successive theme and rheme pairings in a text is called thematic Progression”.
2.1.14. Thematic Progression
At the level of paragraph, Halliday (55) proposes that thematic progression in written discourse relates to organization of paragraphs where the topic sentence of that paragraph is the Theme (Jing, 180). According to Hawes (95)Danes (118), the first linguist to write on progression theory, posits three types of thematic progression. They include:“linear thematic progression”, “constant thematic progression” and “derived thematic progression” (Danes, 118).
Linear thematic progression: the rheme of the preceding clause becomes the theme of the succeeding clause. In other words, “in linear progression, the Theme of a clause derives from the Rheme of the preceding clause” (Thompson, 175). Abed (82) says in simple linear thematic progression, “an item from the rheme of the first clause becomes the theme of the subsequent clause”. That is why Jing (181) asserts that “the Rheme portion of each sentence” in linear progression “becomes the Theme of the following clause”. What this means is that the theme of the succeeding clause is drawn from the rheme of the preceding clause.
Constant thematic progression: here the same theme holds throughout the text. That is to say that “in constant progression, the Themes of clauses keep the same, i.e. connects back to the theme of the previous clause” (Thompson, 175). Abed (83) explains that in constant thematic progression “the item in the theme of the first clause is also selected as the theme of the following clause”. Hawes (95) elucidates that “in constant progression, successive clauses retain the same theme or referent in initial position”. Jing (181) has the same view when he succinctly captures that “constant progression is where the same Theme appears in a series of utterances”. What this means is that in constant thematic progression there is continuation of thematic focus where the same theme in a discourse is maintained in a succession.
Derived thematic progression: the themes of successive clauses are of the same type and under the same topic. “In derived progression, the Themes of the clauses derive from the hyper-theme (Thompson, 175). Abed (83) says in derived progression “the particular themes in subsequent clauses are derived from a hypertheme or from the same overriding theme”. Hawes (95) “in derived progression, the themes connect to an implicit overall ‘hypertheme’ of the whole text”.The predominant notion in derived thematic progression is that there is a prevailing theme of a discourse which other separate themes aligned with. Jing (182) seems to have a similar notionwhen he clarifies in derived thematic progression, “the topics of each sentence are individually different, but are all derived from the same overriding Theme, or hyper-Theme or overall Theme of a paragraph or text”. Jia (16) use the terms Parallel Patterns to refer to derived thematic progression where “the theme of the first clause is the central point of the discourse. The rest of the themes in the following clauses are the same with the first one”. Therefore, given derived thematic progression is greatly used in specific or expert fields such as medicine and law where members have related shared knowledge. On the other hand, linear thematic progression creates a flexible “dynamic” style while constant progressions a “static” style (Jing, 181-182). Perhaps, practical examples would be provided on thematic progression in the course of the study during our data analysis on Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics.
2.1.15. The Teaching Profession and ethical codes
In every profession, ethical standards are set. A profession is a vocation that requires special skills and experience. The Alberta Teachers’ “Association Nature of Teaching and Teaching as a Profession” explains that in its broadest sense, “teaching is a process that facilitates learning.” Teaching is therefore the specialized application of knowledge, skills and attributes designed to provide unique services to meet educational needs of the individuals and of the society. According to Aklahyel, a “profession refers to a distinct task which could only be performed meaningfully by an individual who has been initiated, trained and assessed” (344). Gailey(121) is convinced that “the service to be rendered by the teaching profession is to assist in preparing human beings in their younger periods of life so that they may be equipped … to live in the most serviceable manner possible during the whole of life.” That is why Maryrose and Uchenna (69), explain that“the essence of teaching is to influence learners to make desirable changes in their behaviour that contribute to better living.” In TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct, teaching is said to be one of the oldest and noblest of all profession. This implies that all other professionals such as engineers, lawyers, pharmacists, etc are made by teachers. It is the profession that has more members than other professions (TRCN, 1).
Even as the argument regarding whether teaching should be regarded as a profession or not still lingers, with the establishment of TRCN, teaching is expected to be professionalized. Unfortunately, due to some of these issues the status of teaching profession in Nigeria has been a contentious issue over the years. According to Goodlord, as cited by Aklahyel, “the autonomy and self-governance is principally missing in teaching” (346)
Whether or not the argument questioning the credibility of teaching as a profession is resolved or not, teaching has become more of a profession than a passion, and as such there is a paradigm shift in the perception of the public. This perception is informed by the effort towards professionalization of teaching with the establishment of Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria. TRCN is responsible for the regulation of the teaching profession in Nigeria. The established teaching codes are encapsulated in the values of respect, care, integrity, and trust that are reflected throughout the code (an online source 2012). The Nigerian Teachers ‘professional ethics are enshrined in the Nigerian Teachers’ Code of Conduct. Therefore, the importance of ethics and codes to any professions cannot be overemphasised.
For quite a long time in the past, “ethics and codes have gone from being an individual and societal issue or norm to become a necessity in the various professions and organizations” (Rahim, 223). According to Tsebee ethics are “the branch of philosophy that helps to determine what is right to do” (1). Similarly, ethics to Eweluta, as cited by Tsebee (l), “relates to moral actions, motive of character, ethical emotions containing precepts of morality … conforming to professional standard of conduct”. Also, drawing the difference between ethics and laws, Tsebee, citing Black, Steele and Barney, agrees that “ethics articulate what we ought to do in order to be moral individuals and professionals, while law concentrates on the bottom-line below which we should not” (1).
Therefore, codes and ethics of the teaching profession are the moral beliefs and rules about right and wrong that influence teachers’ behaviour. According to Durosaro (2), “the codes of ethics are meant to guide teachers’ behaviour and job performance.” So, professional ethics are all the moral commitment or professional moral reflections that improve the personal morality of the practitioners which they bring to their work and which encompasses the whole acts of right and wrong that help the practitioners resolve moral issues encountered at the workplace.
It is important to note that for the teaching profession these ethics are in two categories, namely: moral ethics and work ethics. Moral ethics consist of honesty, loyalty, discipline, decency and sexual comportment etc. Work ethics include continuous learning, lesson plan, conducting assessment, cooperating with colleagues, and report about learners etc. The TRCN Act, section 9 empowers the council to formulate rules to guide the professional behaviour of teachers, and our analysis in the study centres on these established professional rules and regulations. Also, the study of these codes, as mentioned earlier, is anchored on Systemic Functional Linguistics theory.
2.2. Empirical Review
In as much as the researcher has not come across existing studies on ‘textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics’, other researchers have undertaken textual analysis in many other areas worthy of note. Also, there are many studies on teachers’ code of conduct carried out by other researchers which bear correspondence with this study.
The foremost in similarity with the current study comes from a research conducted by Nannie Holland on the topic: ‘An Evaluation and Analysis of Teachers’ Codes of Ethics’ in 1946; a Master of Arts dissertation. The study covered thirteen states in the United States of America. Nannie evaluated the method of formulating the codes; the time spent preparing the codes, number of revisions of codes, the method of reinforcement, and the mode of dissemination. At the end, the research findings revealed that only two states had met the criteria of formulation of codes and only five states used sufficient time in preparing the codes, while the rest used one year or less. The findings also disclosed that eight states had made provision for some machinery to enforce the codes; but in most cases the enforcement was ineffective. Then, Nannie Holland concluded that the mode of dissemination of teachers’ codes in the United States was generally ineffective.
However, the target of the current research (Textual Analysis of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes and Ethics) differs from Nannie’s study in a number of significant ways. First, the current research is on Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethicswhere forty-five clauses are selected for study. Secondly, it is a textual analysis which seeks to interpret the functional messages encoded in the Nigerian teachers’ code of conductwhich is something different from the problem Nannie’s study set to address.
Another similar study is the one conducted by Ratnam, Cheran on the topic: ‘A Textual Analysis of News Framing in the Sri Lankan Conflict’ for Master of Arts dissertation, 2014.Ratnam selected newspaper articles from mainstream Sri Lankan and U.S newspapers. A total of 185 articles were categorized into war journalism and peace journalism and analysed using frame theory. The study reveals that in the selected newspapers, the peace journalism frame dominated the coverage of the Sri Lankan civil war, and the strongest war journalism frame is visible in local newspaper articles. On the other hand, the current study seeks to do something different because apart from the data disparity, the current study adopts Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory in the study of Nigerian teachers’ codes, where the three Mata-functions and lexico-semantic relations are employed in data categorization and analysis. Thus, the disparity is in data and theoretical framework.
Ken Allen carried a study similar to Nannie Holland in the United States in 2003 for his PhD thesis on the topic, ‘A Descriptive Analysis of the Codes of Ethics for Educators.’Ken described what each state in the United States has done in developing codes and ethics for its educators, as well as the duties the governing board responsible for enforcing the codesand standards within each state were engaged in. The data collected for the study provided the evidence which Ken used to conclude that 23 states had enacted codes of ethics for their educators. Each state had also designated an entity to give the educator due process in enforcing the code of ethics. Again, the current study brings bear something different from Ken’s research. The current study is a textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes, and the focus is to interpret the functional messages contain in the codes with the view to tackling the problem of misapplication and misinterpretation of the codes by some teachers. In order to achieve this, the researcher employs Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistic Theory for the study. Thus, the data employed and theoretical framework separates the two studies.
2.3. Theoretical Framework
The study adopts Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). According to Opoku and Adjei (14) while “Systemic refers to the view that language is an interrelated set of choices or options for making meaning … functional refers to the view that language has evolved to do what it does.” SFL is considered appropriate for this study because while many linguistic theories focus on mental process, SFL is somehow sided with sociolinguistics and pragmatics where language is explored on the basis on how it is used in social contexts or how meaningful choices are made to achieve targeted goal. This means that SFL focuses more on what language does (language function) than how it does it (language structure). Halliday and Matthiessen (3) clarify that SFL “has a semantic as well as a formal lexico-grammatical reactance”.
As an approach of language that is developed largely by Halliday and his followers during the 1960s in the United Kingdom and later in Australia, Almurashi says “SFL is built on previous works of some influential linguists such asMalinowski and Firth” (71). Almurashi explains further that “SFL, with regards to data, does not tackle the manner of language representation or process in the human brain, but would rather try to see discourses produced in the form of written or oral language and what is contained in the texts that are produced”(71). This is done in recognition of the powerful roles language performs in human culture or society, especially how meaning is viewed. For instance, Schleppegrell (21) considers “meaning-making as a process through which language shapes, and is shaped by, the contexts in which it is used”. Viewing meaning from context of usage unravels the functional roles of linguistic utterances.
This perspective of meaning assessment relates to the actual functionality of Systemic Functional Linguistics theory and what the theory does. For instance, Bavali and Sadighi (15) confirm that “in Systemic Functional Linguistics ‘clause’ rather than ‘sentence’ is the unit of analysis”. This means that in SFL, a clause is a unit in which meanings of three different kinds are combined. For instance, Bravali and Sadighi say that there are “Three distinct structures, each expressing one kind of semantic organization, are mapped onto one another to produce a single Wording” (15). Thus, SFL, unlike other grammar rule theories – say UG -, takes the resource perspective rather than the rule perspective, and it is premeditated to exhibit the overall system of grammar rather than only fragments. That’s why it has come to be known as a Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday xiv). Therefore, “SFL describes linguistic systems and the functions they enable, revealing the ways social actors construe their experiences and enact relationships” (Schleppegrell, 22).
According to Almurashi (73), “inside the language itself the SFL describes a model with three levels as a tristratal model of language”. Citing Eggins, Almurashi outlines the three levels as follows:
i. Discourse-semantics has three meta-functions namely: interpersonal meta-function, ideational meta-function, and textual meta-functions
ii. Lexico-grammar includes both grammar and vocabulary in one stratum, and represents the view of language in both lexis and grammar.
iii. Phonology, orthography (or graphology) refers to the sound system, the writing system, and the wording system (73).
Apart from the above, Almurashi; himself has a breakdown of the various levels of SFL. He says that in SFL, a text is analysed in the following areas, namely: ideology, context of culture, context of situation (register) discourse-semantics, lexico-grammar, and phonology or/and graphology (74). We shall start with the three meta-functions.
2.3.1. Meta-Functions
The whole idea of SFL is that language is functional. This means that language is primarily a tool for conveying ideas and getting things done. Thus, a functional approach takes a “functional” orientation on several levels. For instance, a clause is a unit in which the meanings of the three functional meanings are combined. “These semantic structures are referred to as Meta-functions” (Bravali and Sadighi, l5). Halliday outlines them as follow:
• Interpersonal meta-function
• Ideational meta-function
• Textual meta-function
Almurashi (73) cites Eggins when he explains that the SFL model proposes that human language has evolved to make three generalized kinds of meanings; they are: experiential meanings (that is clause as representation), interpersonal meaning (clause as exchange), and contextual meanings (clause as message).
2.3.3. Interpersonal meta-function
Schleppegrell (22) says “Interpersonal resources enact relationships and convey attitudes (tenor)”. In other words, interpersonal meta-function is concerned with the interaction between speakers and listeners as well as the grammatical resources for enacting social roles in general, and speech roles in particular. In dialogic interaction, it is employed for establishing, changing, and maintaining interpersonal relations. According to Graber, “The interpersonal component of the semantic level has to do with the exchange that takes place between speaker and listener or writer and reader“(25). Using Halliday’s opinion, Graber explains further that “the interpersonal component is associated with mood, modality and person” (25).
Moreover, these functions are realized differently. For instance, they are realized from the use of vocatives and the use of first and second person forms of identification, the use of distinctions between imperative and indicative moods and the use of modals and negatives (Graber, 25). Interpersonal meaning is realized through the grammar of mood just in the same way the experiential meaning is realized through the grammar of process types. The grammar of interpersonal meanings focuses on the clause as a unit of exchange that comprises Subject, Predicator, Complements and Adjuncts. And when these elements are used in the exchange of information, the resulting structure is a proposition (Graber, 26). Such propositions come about as a result of selections from the mood system. Selections in this area result to a declarative, interrogative, or imperative and from other resources for interpersonal meaning (Schleppegrell, 22).
2.3.4. Ideational Meta-Function
Ideational meaning makes analysis in terms of Transitivity system. Our experiences of the world of reality are captured in terms of processes or “goings-on”, that is, happening, doing, sensing, meaning, being, and becoming. These processes that make up the transitivity system of language are encapsulated in Halliday’s Experiential Meta-function. Schleppegrell (22) confirms that the system of transitivity offers a range of options for ideational meaning that relates to how language varies in “presenting experience: as doing, sensing, saying, or being”. This means that a clause in its ideational function is a means of representing patterns of experience. In Halliday’s advanced analysis, “experiential meanings are accounted for in clauses by the transitivity system” (Halliday, 102). This implies that experiential meanings at the level of clause are those functions that reflect or represent processes, participants, and circumstances (Graber, 26). In other words, in clauses, the process types that revolve around this transitivity are participants and circumstances. That is to say, the transitivity system includes choices of process type and the configuration of possible participants and circumstances which can be associated with a particular process type. This explains why the term transitivity is used in traditional grammar to distinguish verbs that are capable of taking a direct object (transitive verbs) from other verbs that are incapable (intransitive) (Graber, 14).
In a similarly vein, Schleppegrell (21) explains that “SFL analysis of transitivity describes the grammatical differences between … a clause with an actor in a doing process … and a clause with a senser in a sensing process”. Meanwhile, Bakuuro (2017), as cited by Nuristiana (132), enumerates “the six processes which shown the experience of human … as material (doing), verbal (saying), mental (feeling), relational (relating), behavioural (behaving), and existential (existing)”. We shall review below as follow:
Material Process interprets doings and happenings including actions, activities, and events in clauses. “The material processes are processes of doing or action” (Graber, 15). As a result of this principal notion, material clause is characterized by particular structural configurations such as Process+ Actor+ Goal (+Recipient), and Process+ Range (Graber, 15). This means that a clause always contains an Actor, which can be realized by a nominal group or even a non-finite clause. Further options determine whether the process is “directed”, in which case, there is a Goal as Well. For instance, Graber (15) illustrates these scenarios using the following examples: [The police (=Actor) hunted (=Process) the demonstrator (=goal)], or not [the policeman (=Actor) ran (=Process)]. If the process is “directed”, it may be ‘benefactive’, and if it is, there may be a Recipient [the judge (Actor) gave (Process) the demonstrator (Recipient) a legal document (Goal)].
Therefore, Material processes have an obligatory participant – the Actor – which is the doer of the action. The Actor is identified by the presence of a nominative case as subject of the verb. The Goal of the action is the participant in some material processes to which the doing is done. The term transitive is used of verbs which require a Goal and intransitive is used of verbs which do not take a Goal participant. Also, there are two related participants, namely: Range and Beneficiary. “Range often looks like a Goal, but differs in that it restates or extends the process itself” (Graber, 15). In addition to the participants, material processes share with other processes that may also be accompanied by circumstantial elements, typically realized by adverbial elements, including prepositional and participial phrases. Graber says “the system of circumstance includes seven terms: Extent, Accompaniment, Location, Matter, Manner, Role and Cause” (15). Thus, ‘Material process’ has the following participants: Actor, Goal, Scope, Attribute, Client, and Recipient.
Mental process construes sensing, perception, cognition, intention, and emotion. A configuration of a process of consciousness involves a participant endowed with consciousness and typically a participant entering into or is created by that consciousness. This process is configurated as Process+ Senser+ Phenomenon. The process always contains a Senser, which is realized by a nominal group denoting a being endowed with consciousness (Almurashi, 16). Graber agrees that mental processes are processes of cognition, perception and affection. In contrast to material processes, mental processes always have two participants: a Sensor and a Phenomenon, even if the Phenomenon is not explicitly realized. The Senser, unlike an Actor of a material clause, is always a conscious agent, and the mental process happens within the consciousness of the Senser. The Phenomenon is the participant that is sensed (18). Therefore, ‘Mental process’ has the following Participants: Senser and Phenomenon.
Relational process is concerned with our experience of the world of our own consciousness both the outer experience and the inner experience as construed by relational processes. Relational processes are expressed in two modes: ‘attributive’ and ‘identifying’. In the attributive mode, an attribute or quality is ascribed to some entity (carrier), while in the Identifying mode; one entity (identifier) is used to identify another (identified) entity (Almurashi, 15). Halliday and Matthiessen (213) explain that “in ‘relational’ clauses, there are two parts to the ‘being’: something is said to ‘be’ something else. In other words, a relationship of being is set up between two separate entities”. This means that “experience is modeled as ‘being’ or ‘having’ rather than as doing or sensing” (Almurashi, 15). Thus, relational process has the following participants: Carrier/Attribute and Token/Value.
Behavioral Processes are processes of physiological and psychological behavior, like smiling, coughing, laughing, breathing, etc. They usually have one participant, that is, the Behaver. The Behaver intermediates between material and mental processes, in that, the Behaver is typically a conscious being, like the Sensor, but the process functions more like one of ‘doing’. According to Halliday and Matthiessen (212–213) “the participants in ‘relational’ clauses are more like the Phenomenon of a ‘mental’ clause – not only things, but also acts and facts can be construed as participants in a ‘relational’ clause”. Darani (182) explains that “on the borderline between ‘material’ and ‘mental’ are the behavioral processes: those that represent the outer manifestations of inner workings” such as the acting out of processes of consciousness and physiological states. Therefore, behavioural process contains the following participants: Behaver and Behaviour.
Verbal Processes are processes of ‘saying’ of any kind. It covers “any kind of symbolic exchange of meaning” as Halliday illustrates in the example – “like the notice tells you to keep quiet or my watch says it‘s half past ten” (129). The verbalization, that is, the message itself is termed “verbiage” and the participants associated with it are “Sayer”; the one who gives out the message, and ‘Receiver’; the one to whom the message is addressed. For example, in she told me a story, ‘she’ is the Sayer, the verb ‘told’ represents a ‘Verbal Process’, ‘me’ is the ‘Receiver’ of the message, and finally ‘a story’ is the ‘Verbiage (Almurashi, 16). Therefore, verbal process according to Darani (182) refers to the “symbolic relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language, like saying and meaning”. We may also say that verbal processes are verbal actions performed by a Sayer. Maximally, “a verbal process may (and frequently does) have a Verbiage, participant, and may have a Recipient (the verbal equivalent of a material Beneficiary) as well” (Graber, l9). Therefore, Verbal process contains the following participants: Sayer, Receiver, and Verbiage.
Existential processes show that something exists or happens. It is the word that is frequently used in such clauses, but has no identified function or meaning, and is merely a subject tiller. The typical verbs used in these clauses are ‘be’, ‘exist’, ‘arise’ and other verbs expressing existence (Graber, l9). The nominal group that follows these verbs is called ‘Existent’. For example, in There was no choice, ‘no choice’ is the ‘Existent’ and ‘was’ the ‘Existential Process. This may be the reason Darani (182) illustrates that “the borderline between the ‘relational’ and the ‘material’ are the processes concerned with existence, the existential, by which phenomena of all kinds are simply recognized to ‘be’ — to exist, or to happen”. Therefore, Existential process contains the participant, Existent.
Finally, Circumstantial Processes are those in which a circumstantial element is attributed to or used to identify a participant (Graber, 23). According to an anonymous online writer on SFG PAGE, Circumstantial elements add information about time, place, manner, and reason or cause. Circumstantial process answers questions on where, why, how, and when. According to this source, ‘circumstantial process’ has many types such as Accompaniment, Contingency, Role, Extent, Angle, and Matter.
Apart from transitivity or experiential meaning, logical meanings, according to Graber, are part of ideational meta-function (25). Logical meanings are realized by relationships of coordination and subordination between clauses or other structural units, often through the use of conjunctions, relative pronouns, ellipsis, and so on. This way of analyzing the clauses produces constituency structures. In other words, logical meanings are associated with interdependency of structures within and beyond a clause. The relationship that exists between headwords and words that modify them or are dependent on them, for example, nouns and the adjectives and articles that modify them; verbs and the adverbs that modify them exemplify logical meanings. Another example is the relationship that holds between clauses in a text. The relationship between independent clauses and clauses that are dependent on them, as well as logical relationships between independent clauses in a text, are logical meanings. Logical meaning must be taken into account in any ideational analysis and as such the focus of ideational analysis in this study is on experiential meanings at the clause level (Graber, 25).
2.3.5. Textual Meta-Function
According to Nilson (223), textual metafunction “comprises interactivity, spontaneity and communicative distance.” It is concerned with how a text presents ideational and interpersonal meanings as information that can be shared by speaker and listener in texts. This meta-function consists of two sub-functions, namely: Theme and Rheme (Almurashi, 16). The Theme to Halliday is “what the message is concerned with: the point of departure for what the speaker is going to say” (36). Halliday elucidates vehemently that Theme must be distinguished from the other two functions, Subject and Actor, which are associated with two distinct, but relevant modes of meaning within the clause, that is, Interpersonal (clause as an exchange) and ideational (clause as a representation) meanings, respectively. Explaining succinctly in a different way Halliday, again, says theme is “the starting point of the message”, that is, the subject. Subject is viewed as “the resting point of the argument” (77). A Subject is structurally realized, in a declarative clause, as the element which is picked up by the pronoun in the tag, meanwhile, an Actor is the active participant in the process (Almurashi, 20).
Also, Graber notes that the textual component consists of the enabling or text-forming functions. These include some aspects of cohesion, information structure, and theme; all of which give texture to a text (36-41). Graber, further, explains that since they are enabling functions, textual meanings are not independent of ideational and interpersonal meanings (36-41). It is pertinent to review the clause and the clause complex.
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0. Preamble
This chapter contains a description of research methodology. The description covers areas such as sources of data, methods employed in collecting data, the techniques engaged by the researcher in sampling data and the general organizational structure of the study. Finally, the section reveals the structural model the researcher has employed in analysing the collected and sampled data.
3.1. Method of Data Collection
The primary source of data for this research work is the TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct first published 2004. The researcher used the 2013 edition of the text. The choice of this edition is for two reasons. Firstly, it is the most recent edition with updated information. Secondly, it is the copy that is currently in circulation and available to the researcher and, supposedly, the teachers. The copy contains first hand information about the codes. Apart from TRCN Teachers’Code of Conduct, the researcher collects data from other sources such as the text books, the internet, journals, and articles. This means that the research work draws data from secondary sources; especially, from the library and internet.
3.2. Research Design
The qualitative design is the main research approach engaged in interpreting the meanings expressed by the clauses and the clause complexes in the Nigerian teachers’ code of ethics. According to Creswell, (1994) as cited in Merriam (145), the focus of qualitative research is on meaning and it is employed to explore “how people make sense of their lives, experiences, and their structures of the world”. Thus, in this work, the qualitative design or method is employed to enable the researcher do a descriptive survey and textual analysis ofthe Nigerian teachers’ code and ethics. The research employsthis design because the focus of the study is not on analysing the codes to determine how frequently or otherwise linguistic elements occur in the codes. In other words, the emphasis is not on figures or statistic analysis, but on the functional messages drawn from the structural analysis of the codes.
Other techniques employed by the researcher in data collection, presentation and analysis include classification and re-arrangement of data into clauses and clause complexes based on their structural or phraseology as contained in the original text. The researcher selects forty-five (45) clauses and clause complexes for presentation and analysis. As a typical policy statement, the data in the Nigerian Teachers’ codes arealready in clauses and clause complexes and the researcher didnot alter the original sequential arrangement of the data as found in the main text. Instead, the researcher sorts out, classifies and regroups the data according to clauses and clause complexes.
Then, in one segment, the data (the 45 clauses and clause complexes) is presented in a table. Afterward, in the case of “clauses”, individual codes are sampled in tables and analyzed according to the three meta-functions of Halliday’s SFL theory. Meanwhile, for the “clause complexes”, data is outlined and analyzed using Taxis and Logico-semantic relations. Subsequently, the data is fully discussed and findings drawn. In terms of structural organization, the study is made up of five chapters. Chapter one is the preliminary chapter, while chapter two is a review of related literature. Chapter three is research methodology. The chapter four of the work covers data presentation and data analysis. Finally, chapter five is the last chapter and it contains summary, conclusion and recommendations.
3.3. Method of Data Analysis
The researcher draws on qualitative analysis model for data analysis. The study being a textual analysis, data is presented and analyzed using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics. The work is partitioned into sections. For instance, the researcher provides a section for data presentation and analysis where raw data (the 45 selected codes) in one segment is first sampled in a table. Then, the codes are classified under clauses and clause complexes, presented and analysed at different segments. According to Halliday and Matthiessen, the basic unit for analysis is the clause at lower and higher ranks (9). Reaffirming it, Sadighi and Bavali explain that in Systemic Functional Linguistics, ‘clause’ rather than ‘sentence’ is theunit of analysis. In Systemic theory, a clause is a unit in which meanings of three different kinds are combined. These semantic structures are referred to as Meta-functions (15). The meta-functions are employed in presenting clauses in tables and analysing them.
Therefore, the basic units for analysis of data are clause and clause complex. For the clauses, data are presented in tables, while for the clause complexes taxis and logico-semantic relations of expansion are characterized. In each case, raw section of data is first imputed, either as clause or clause complex, and then analysed before moving on to another clause or clause complex.
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.0. Preamble
This chapter covers data presentation and analysis. Firstly, in one segment, the raw data, that is, the forty-five clauses and clause complexes on Nigerian teachers’ codes, is drawn and presented in a table. Then, for the clauses, the same raw data, one at a time, is imputed in tables and analysed using the three meta-functions, namely: ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. On the other hand, clause complexes are representedand analysed, one at a time, using taxis and logico-semantic relation of expansion.
4.1. Data Presentation
| Nigerian Teacher’s Codes and ethics | |
| 4.1. Learner’s Rights and Dignity Teachers should have respect for learner’s right and dignity without prejudice to gender, race, religion, tribe, colour, physical characteristics, place of origin, age, etc. | 4.2. Discipline Teachers should (at all time) ensure that learners behave in a civil and disciplined manner. |
| 4.3. Plagiarism Teachers should recognize the handwork and contributions of colleagues to knowledge by refraining from copyright violations. | 4.4. Loyalty Teachers should cooperate with one another to achieve professional goals |
| 4.5. Discrimination Teachers should relate equally with all colleagues irrespective of religion, culture, race, gender, political inclination etc. | 4.6. Obligation to Union Agreement Teachers are obliged to respect agreement entered between their union and the employers |
| 4.7. Areas of Competence Teachers should seek to perform only tasks that are within their professional competences. | 4.8. Personality Teachers should exhibit charisma, foresight, justice, empathy, self-respect, selflessness, honesty, consistency, moral-uprightness etc in their service. |
| 4.9. Democratic Behaviour Teachers should promote group decision-making process in their organization or group. | 4.10. Right to InformationTeachers should provide parents/guardians with all relevant information about activities, progress and problems concerning their children/wards as and when required. |
| 4.11. Constructive Criticism Teachers should criticize their colleagues, constituted authorities or public affairs in the country only constructively and with a high sense of responsibility. | 4.12. Obedience to LawTeachers should comply with all the laws of the land and moral codes of the society that promote good governance, transparency and accountability in office. |
| 4.13. Objectivity Teachers should not do anything that would bring down the dignity of the profession. They should exhibit fairness without fear or favour in the discharge of their professional duties. | 4.14. Defamation of ColleaguesTeachers should not make derogatory remarks on one another or undermine the integrity of colleagues in any circumstance. |
| 4.15. Regular communicationTeachers should communicate regularly with parents/guardians regarding the affairs of their children or wards. They should respect the confidence of both parents, children/wards who may bring personal matters to their notice. | 4.16. Corrupt Practice Teachers should not ask or receive gifts or gratification for themselves or for others in any kind whatsoever for selfish motive. Corrupt practices here include having canal knowledge of a learner, bribery and indecent relationship with a learner, etc. |
| 4.17. Ideological InfluenceTeachers should not use their positions to spread their political religious or other ideologies among learners. | 4.18. Corporal punishmentTeachers should not under any circumstance administer any corporal punishment except otherwise permitted by the school authority. |
| 4.19. Sexual Misconduct and Related Abuse of OfficesTeachers should not use their position to humiliate, threaten, intimidate, harass or blackmail any learner to submit to selfish motives or to engage in sexual misconduct, drug addiction and trafficking, cultism, human trafficking and other related offences. | 4.20. ConfidentialityTeachers should not reveal information about the learner given in confidence to them except by law or in the interest of learner, parents/guardians or the public. |
| 4.21. Examination malpracticeTeachers should keep all examination records and knowledge at their disposal with absolute secrecy and should not in any manner whatsoever aid and abet examination malpractice by any learners. They are obliged to report all cases of examination malpractice, which come to their knowledge, to the appropriate authorities without delay. | 4.22. RespectTeachers should respect both their senior and junior colleagues in all dealings by rendering help and assisting them to attain highest professional goals. |
| 4.23. CanvassingTeachers should not unduly advertise themselves in order to gain undue advantage over colleagues or to suggest that they possess extra-ordinary knowledge and skills which they do not actually have. | 4.24. TeamworkTeachers should seek assistance from colleagues in tasks beyond their management or professional ability when necessary and take delight in teamwork. |
| 4.25. Symbiotic RelationshipThe relationship between teachers should at all times be mutually beneficial and aimed at lifting the profession to the highest level. | 4.26. Respect of ContractTeachers should strive to fulfill contractual obligations and to render their services only in accordance with the terms of contract or the law. |
| 4.27. Respects for Parents/GuardiansTeachers should show courtesy and respect to parents/guardians and offer maximum cooperation in dealing with issues concerning their children or wards. | 4.28. FavouritismTeachers should resist taking gifts, favours, and hospitality from parents and guardians, which are likely to influence them to show favours to their children/wards in the performance of their duty. |
| 4.29. Association with parents/guardiansTeachers should encourage and actively participate in parent/teachers association (PTA) which is likely to impart positively on the learner and general educational programmes. | 4.30. Role of Teachers in the SocietyTeachers in the society should be embodiment of exemplary citizenship, Integrity, and industry and participate actively in the development of both their immediate and wider communities. |
| 4.31. Advice to Government/StakeholdersTeachers have the responsibility where possible to advise government and stakeholders on the provision of appropriate educational infrastructures, Programme, and funding. | 4.32. ToleranceTeachers should accommodate the diverse cultures, religions, other ideologies and practices of the society and promote good inter-human relations. |
| 4.33. Personal HabitTeacher should cultivate personal habits that are capable of portraying the profession to be of very high standards and avoid indecent behaviours and social vices such as drunkenness, smoking in the public, indecent dressing, breaching of public peace, dishonesty, fraud, etc. | 4.34. InspirationTeachers should be able to inspire subordinates by exemplary character or behaviour and show unalloyed commitment to the demands of their offices. |
| 4.35. Motivation Teachers should give necessary incentives to subordinates to empower them to advance and excel in their professional careers. | 4.36. Liability of TeachersTeachers are bound to be liable for any acts or omissions that run contrary to professional standards or fall short of commonly held values, practices and norms. |
| 4.37. Open Mindedness Teachers should be open-minded to their colleagues, learners, the general public and help to bring to their attention all information [that may be essential for their professional growth, development and general welfare. | 4.38. Incentive for Good BehaviourTeachers who distinguish themselves in the discharge of their professional duties may have the opportunity of receiving recognition from Teachers Registration council of Nigeria in form of merit awards as well as recommendation for national honours and other benefits. |
| 4.39. Interpretation of Teachers Code of Conduct (TCC)In the case of any conflict arising from the interpretation of this code of conduct, such a case should be brought to the Registrar/chief Executive, Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria for clarification. |
4.2. Data Analysis
4.2.1. Clauses of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes
Keys:
Ideational meta-function = Transitivity (Processes, Participant and Circumstance)
Interpersonal meta-function = Mood (Mood and Residue)
Textual meta-function = Theme (Theme and Rheme)
4.2.1.1. Learner’s Rights and Dignity
| Teachers | should have | respect for | learner’s right and dignity | without prejudice to gender, race, religion, tribe, colour, physical characteristics, place of origin, age, etc. |
| Actor | Relational | Goal | Beneficiary | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue |
As represented above, at the interpersonal level, the clauseprocess belongs to Relational process of attributive. It is represented by a verb phrase “should have”. The participants involved in the clause are Actor = Teachers (traditionally a plural common noun category), Goal = respect (an abstract noun), and Beneficiary = learner’s right and dignity (a nominal group). Also, there is a presence of minor system – Circumstance of manner = without prejudice to gender, race …(Prepositional phrase) and this has the major role of expanding the clause especially by elaborating on the manner in which the respect should be carried out. The role of the preposition – “for” – is to provide the relationship between the goal and the beneficiary.
Mood occurs between “teachers” and “should have”. In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. It shows that the writer is giving out a sort of instruction to reader. The use of modulated modality “should”indicates obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the reader is obliged to carry out.
The unmarked theme in the clause is “teachers”, while “should have respect for learner’s right and dignity without prejudice to gender, race, religion, tribe, colour, physical characteristics, place of origin, age, etc.” is rheme. Using the unmarked theme, teachers, is appropriate given the fact that teachers are the target of the rheme; the group the instruction contained in the rheme is meant for. Also, thematic progression cannot be determined in the clause because the clause is listed as a distinct unit of instructions.
4.2.1.2. Discipline
| Teachers | should (at all time) ensurethat | learners behave in a civil and disciplined manner |
| Actor | Material | Goal |
| Theme | Rheme | |
| Mood | Residue |
In clause 2, “should …. Ensure” is classified as a Material process, that is, a process of doing which presupposes and presents teachers as professional experts with the skills to carry out the assigned task without letdown. The participants involved are: Actor = teachers (traditionally a common noun category) and goal = that learners behave in a civil and disciplined manner (nominal group or clause). From the traditional point of view, it is an intransitive clause and, as such, there is no Beneficiary, but Range and participant. The minor system, circumstance – at all time – as an adverbial phrase of manner (frequency) expands the verbal group of the clause and expresses the degree of regularity.
Mood is indicated through “teachers’ and “should (at all time) ensure”. It is an imperative mood of given, suggestingthat the writer is not involved. He or she is giving out information or instruction to the readers. “At all time” is taken to be an equivalent of “usually”, which is modalization. However, the modulated modality “should” indicates obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the reader is obliged to carry out.
The unmarked theme in the clause is “teachers”, while “should [at all time] ensure that learners behave in a civil and disciplined manner” is rheme. Using the unmarked theme, teachers, is appropriate given the fact that teachers are the target of the rheme; the group the instruction contained in the rheme is meant for. Also, thematic progression cannot be determined in the clause because the clause is listed as a distinct unit of instructions.
4.2.1.3. Plagiarism
| Teachers | should recognize | the handwork and contributions of colleagues to knowledge | by refraining from copyright violations |
| Senser | Mental | Phenomenon | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
In clause 3, “should recognize” is classified as mentalprocess of cognition. The participants involved in the clauseare: Senser (“teachers” as a common noun), Phenomenon (the handwork and contributions of colleagues to knowledge), and Circumstance (by refraining from copyright violations). Phenomenon consists of a noun clause functioning as the object of the process, while circumstance of extension is an embedded non-finite clause functioning as an extendedexpansion of the phenomenon.
Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should recognize”. This mood of the clause is an imperative mood which suggests the relationship between the writer and the reader. The mood excludes the writer, and specifies that the writer is giving out information or instructions to the readers. The use of modulated modality “should” indicates obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
“Teachers” is fronted as an unmarked theme to indicate the target of the clause, or the “point of departure” on which rheme or residue is built. Thematic progression cannot be measured because it is structurally listed in the discourse.
4.2.1.4. Loyalty
| Teachers | should cooperate with | one another | to achieve professional goals |
| Actor | Material | Beneficiary | Goal |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
In clause 4, “should cooperate” is classified into material process, that is, the process of doing. The participants involvedin the clause are: Actor = “teachers”, Goal = “to achieve professional goals”, and Beneficiary = “one another”. Theclause is an example of what is traditionally called ditransitive clause. The presence of actor, “teachers” (a common noun),shows clearly that the clause is in the active voice. The preposition “with” links the Actor with the Beneficiary in terms of the relationship “teachers” and “one another” share in the clause. Traditionally, Goal (to achieve professional goals) is a director object. The beneficiary (one another) is ananaphoric reference for the Actor (teacher).
Mood is related in “teachers” and “should cooperate”. Here the imperative mood shows that the writer is an instructor. In other words, the mood suggests a form of charge where the writer issues instructions to the readers. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation. It means a sort of instruction for the readers to carry out.
“Teachers” is fronted as an unmarked theme to indicate that the information in the rheme is given and it is meant to be carried out by the actor. The thematic progression of the clause cannot be determined because the clause is independently listed in the text.
4.2.1.5. Discrimination
| Teachers | should relate equally | With | all colleagues | irrespective of religion, culture, race, gender, political inclination etc. |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance | |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 5 shows that “should relate (equally)” is classified into material process, that is, process of doing and it is expanded by the presence of an adjunct (equally), specifically, an adverb of manner indicative of the manner the relationship should be. There are two participants in the clause, namely: Actor = teachers and Goal = all colleagues (a noun phrase). The presence of the Actor signifies that the clause is active voice. The minor system, circumstance of extension = irrespective of religion, culture, race, gender, political inclination, etc, further expands or extends the clause byexpressing non-conditionality of the process (should relate).
Mood is related in “teachers” and “should relate”. In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. It shows that the writer is giving out information or instructions to the readers. The use of modulated modality, should, specifies obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
“Teachers” is fronted as an unmarked theme to indicate the target of the clause, or the point of departure where rheme or residue is built on. In this clause the question of thematic progression type cannot be answered because the clause is not embedded in a paragraph structure or text.
4.2.1.6. Obligation to Union Agreement
| Teachers | are obliged to respect | agreement entered | between their union and the employers |
| Senser | Mental process | Phenomenon | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
The ideational meta-function in clause 6 indicates that the mental process, which is the process of cognition, is – are obliged to respect. Senser is – teachers. The phenomenon for the process is – agreement entered. The phenomenon contains circumstance and the circumstance is – between their union and the employers. The presence of Senser readily suggests that the clause is active and the mental process attracts an abstract phenomenon (agreement). The circumstance (between their union and the employers) is a prepositional group that discloses the other entities in the clause and which specifies agreement. It unmistakably states the entities that would enter intoagreement of which teachers are to respect.
The textual meta-function in the clause contains teachers as Theme, while Rheme is – are obliged to respect agreement entered between their union and the employers.
On the interpersonal meta-function level, there is mood and residue. Mood in the clause intermediates between “teachers” and “are obliged to respect”. In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. It suggests the relationship between the speaker and the listener. It shows that the speaker, who appears to be superior to the listener or at least for the sake of the message is placed higher than the listener, is giving some instructions the listener is to carry out. “Teachers” is fronted as theme to indicate the target of the clause, or the point of departure where rheme or residue is built on. Also, the question of thematic progression does not arise because the clause is listed in the text.
4.2.1.7. Areas of Competence
| Teachers | should seek to perform | only tasks | that are within their professional competences. |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 7 gives the fact that the process is material, that is, the process of doing. It is represented by a complex verb phrase “should seek to perform”. The participants involved in the clause are: Actor = teachers and Goal = only tasks (a noun phrase) is traditionally made up of a qualifier and a noun head. The qualifier, only, plays a restricted or constrained role of limiting tasks teachers are to carry out. The presence of a common obligatory participant, Actor, represents the clause asactive voice. The minor system, circumstance, in the clause is an embedded noun clause – that are within their professional competences. This traditionally noun clause is an elaborated expansion that post-modifies tasks.
“Teachers” and “should seek to perform” reflect the imperative mood of given. It confirms that the writer is not involved. Rather it illustrates that the writer is giving instructions to a certain group of audience whom by context of Theme are teachers. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out. The verb, seek, in the complex material group, is synonymous with request which indicates that teachers should demand otherwise they could be given “any tasks” as opposed to “only tasks”.
“Teachers” as a fronted theme is to indicate the target of the clause, or the point of departure where rheme or residue is built on which also suggests that teachers are the ones the information or instruction contained in rheme is meant for. Finally, clause is listed in the text; therefore its thematic progression cannot be ascertained.
4.2.1.8. Personality
| Teachers | should exhibit | charisma, foresight, justice, empathy, self-respect, selflessness, honesty, consistency, moral-uprightness etc | in their service |
| Carrier | Relational | Attribute | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 8 gives the fact that the process is Relational. It is represented traditionally by a verb phrase, “should exhibit”. The participants involved in this clause are Carrier = teachers(a common noun), and Attribute = charisma, foresight, justice, empathy, self-respect … (a nominal group i.e. a list of qualities). In the relational process which has attributive mood, qualities are assigned. As shown in the clause, Attribute(charisma, foresight, justice, empathy, self-respect…) gives a qualities to the Carrier, “teachers”. Another unearthing is the presence of minor system, Circumstance, which is, “in their service. This circumstance is to expand the clause by giving information on the professional jurisdiction where teachers should portray the listed qualities.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. This mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should exhibit”. It shows that the writer is giving instructions to a targeted group, and in this context, a group of teachers. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation. This modality suggests that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
The unmarked theme in the clause is “Teachers”. “Teachers” is fronted in the clause to indicate the point of departure where rheme (charisma, foresight, justice, empathy, self-respect, selflessness, honesty, consistency, moral-uprightness etc in their service) built on. This thematic positioning may also suggest that teachers are the target of the instruction is contained in rheme. As a result of stylistic structure, clause 8 is independently listed, and as such, we cannot analyse its thematic progression.
4.2.1.9. Democratic Behaviour
| Teachers | should promote | group decision-making process | in their organization or group |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 9 shows that, should promote, is classified into material, that is, a process of doing. The participants involved in the clause are: Actor = Teachers (a plural common noun), and Goal = group decision-making process (a nominal group). As a monotransitive clause, the process has no beneficiary. Rather, the clause contains a minor system, circumstance – “in their organization or group” which is, traditionally, a prepositional phrase functioning as circumstance of location whose major role is to expand the meaning of the clause by introducing professional jurisdiction.
In the clause, Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should exhibit”. This imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. It indicates that the speaker has given instructions to present to a group of audience. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation which proposes that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
Also, “Teachers” as theme is fronted to indicate the point of departure where rheme is built. This also suggests that “teachers” as an unmarked theme is the target of the instruction captured in the rheme. In other words, the instructions encapsulate in rheme prescribe what teachers should do. The message of the clause is presented or listed independently in the text, and as such, we may not analyse its thematic progression.
4.2.1.10. Right to Information
| Teachers | should provide | parents/guardians | with all relevant information about activities, progress and problems concerning their children/wards as and when required |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 10 shows that, should provide, is classified into material, that is, a process of doing. The participants involved in the clause are: Actor = Teachers (a plural common noun), and Goal = parents/guardians (a nominal group). As a monotransitive structure, the clause does not give room for Beneficiary. Rather, it contains a minor system Circumstance – “with all relevant information about activities, progress and problems concerning their children/wards as and when required” which is, traditionally, a prepositional phrase functioning as Circumstance whose major role is to expand the meaning of the clause by supplying detailed information.
In the clause, Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should provide”. This imperative mood of given shows conciliates the tone of command and implies that the writer is not involved. It indicates that the speaker has given instructions to present to a group of audience. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation which proposes that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the audience is obliged to execute.
Also, “Teachers” as theme is fronted to indicate the point of departure where rheme is built. “Teachers” as an unmarked theme is not just a point of departure but also the target of the instruction captured in the rheme. In other words, the instructions encapsulate in rheme prescribe what teachers should do. The message of the clause is presented or listed independently in the text, and as such, we may not analyse its thematic progression.
4.2.1.11. Constructive Criticism
| Teachers | should criticize | their colleagues, constituted authorities or public affairs in the country | only constructively and with a high sense of responsibility |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 11 shows that “should criticize” is classified into material process, that is, process of doing. The participants involved in the clause are Actor = teachers (a plural common noun), and Goal = “their colleagues, constituted authorities or public affairs in the country” (a nominal group). As a monotransitive clause, it has no beneficiary. There is also the presence of minor system, circumstance = “only constructively and with a high sense of responsibility”. As an adverbial phrase, the circumstance functions as a post-modifier of the material process (should criticize) indicating clearly the manner in which the criticism should be done.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should criticize”. It shows that the writer has some instructions to render to the audience. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
Also, “teachers” is fronted as theme to indicate the target of the clause where the theme is separated from rheme or (residue in the case of textual meta-function). The theme of the clause “Teachers” is unmarked. Thematic progression is not structurally marked because the clause is not embedded in a continuous text, but simply listed.
4.2.1.12. Obedience to Law
| Teachers | should comply with | all the laws of the land and moral codes of the society | that promote good governance, transparency and accountability in office |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Clause 12 shows that “should comply with” is classified into material process, that is, process of doing. The participants involved in the clause are Actor = teachers (a plural common noun), and Goal = “all the laws of the land and moral codes of the society” (a nominal group). As a monotransitive clause, it has no beneficiary. There is also the presence of minor system, circumstance = “that promote good governance, transparency and accountability in office”. As an adjectival group, the circumstance functions as a post-modifier of Goal (all the laws of the land and moral codes of the society) by giving additional information about “the laws of the land and moral codes”.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should comply with”. It shows that the writer has some instructions to render to the audience. The use of modulated modality, should, indicates obligation. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
Also, “teachers” is fronted as theme to indicate the target of the clause where the theme is separated from rheme or (residue in the case of textual meta-function). The theme of the clause “Teachers” is unmarked. Thematic progression is not structurally marked because the clause is not placed in a continuous text, but simply listed.
4.2.1.13. Objectivity
| 1. Teachers | should not do | Anything | that would bring down | the dignity of the profession |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance | Beneficiary |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue | |||
| 2. They | should exhibit | fairness without fear or favour | in the discharge of their professional duties | |
| Senser | Mental | Phenomenon | Circumstance | |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue |
Ideational meta-function: (1) participants (Actor, Goal, and Beneficiary) + process (material) + circumstance. (2)Participants (Senser and Phenomenon) + process (mental) + circumstance. Interpersonal meta-function: mood = (1) teachers + modality + negative “do”, (2) they + modality + do, residue = “should not do anything …. And should exhibit fairness …” respectively. Textual metafunction: theme = “teachers” and “they” respectively, Rheme = “should not do anything … and should exhibit fairness …” Respectively.
Clause 1 shows that “should not do” is classified into material process with a negative doing process. The participants involved in the clause are: Actor = teachers (a common plural noun), Goal = anything (is an indefinite pronoun). Beneficiary in the clause is “the dignity of the profession” (a noun phrase). Circumstance “that would bring down”, is an adjectival clause with an expanding role of post-modifying the Goal (anything). Finally, the clause is traditionally a ditransitive clause containing two objects.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows the relationship between the writer and the audience. Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should not do” which show that the writer is delegated to give certain instructions. In other words, the mood shows that the writer has some instructions to render to the audience. The use of polarity (negative marker), shouldnot, indicates what teachers are not allowed to do. It means that the writer is giving out a set of instructions that the readers are obliged to carry out.
“Teachers” is fronted as theme to indicate the target of the clause, whereas the theme is separated from rheme or (residue in the case of textual meta-function). The theme of the clause “Teachers” is unmarked. It is placed in the initial position of a continuous thematic progression structure.
Clause 2 shows that “should exhibit” is classified into mental process, that is, process of cognition. The participants involved in the clause are: Senser = they (a pronoun) which links Senser with the participant of the preceding clause (1) indicating the people who are to display the desired attitude proposed by the process. Phenomenon = fairness (an abstract noun) is post-modified by “without fear or favour” (an adjectival phrase). Circumstance in the clause is “in the discharge of their professional duties”. It is the circumstance of accompaniment expanding the phenomenon group.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. Mood is reflected in “teachers” and “should not do”. Here, the writer has given instructions the readers are obliged to carry out. “They” is fronted and it is theunmarked theme of the clause. As a personal pronoun, “they” is an anaphoric substituted reference employed suggest that the succeeding instructions are meant for the same group of peoplereference is made to in the first clause. The clause is an example of continuous thematic progression where the theme of the preceding clause is fronted is sustained in the succeeding.
4.2.1.14. Defamation of Colleagues
| 1. Teachers | should not make | derogatory remarks | On | one another |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance | Beneficiary |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue | |||
| 2. Or | Undermine | the integrity of colleagues | in any circumstance | |
| Senser | Mental | Phenomenon | Circumstance | |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue |
Ideational meta-function: Clause (1) contains Participants (Actor, Goal, and Beneficiary) + Process (material) + circumstance. Clause (2) contains Participants (Senser and Phenomenon) + Process (Mental) + Circumstance. Interpersonal Metafunction: Clause (1) contains mood = teachers + finite. Residue = derogatory remarks on one another. Clause (2) contains mood = + finite. Textual Meta-function: Clause (1) contains Theme = teachers, and Rheme = should not make derogatory remarks on one another. Clause (2) contains theme= or, and Rheme = the integrity of colleagues on any circumstance.
“Teachers” is the actor and the unmarked theme of clause 1. It also combines with finite to form the mood and the material process in interpersonal meta-function and ideational meta-function respectively. “Teachers” and “should not make” represent a modulated negative modality which encourages abstinence from the interdicted practice. “Should not make”represents given information where it is indicative that the giver of the command is not a participant. The goal (derogatory remarks) and Beneficiary (one another) are also participants in the ideational meta-function. Beneficiary (one another), in traditional parlance, is a reciprocal pronoun and subject complement which can be substituted with “themselves” to mean that teachers are obliged not to hurt themselves with insults.
“Teachers” is fronted as theme to indicate the target of the clause. This theme is separated from rheme at the level of meta-function. The theme of the clause “Teachers” isunmarked. This means that the theme is employed to indicate the target audience the rheme of the clause is meant for.
In clause 2 is made up of Senser (or), phenomenon is “the integrity of colleagues”, and Circumstance of manner (In any circumstance). The process is mental (undermine), and the use of this process corresponds with the abstract phenomenon (the integrity of colleagues) which is cognitive. As a contextual non-finite or even if considered in isolation, the senser of the mental process – undermine – is readily viewed as animate. From the context, however the implicit Senser (teachers) is implicitly obliged not to undermine the integrity of their colleagues in any way.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. Mood is reflected in “or” and “undermine”. It shows that the writer has some instructions to render to the audience who are mentioned in the preceding clause. The marked theme “or” provides a link between the hypertheme and subordinate theme in the derived thematic progression.
4.2.1.15. Regular communication
| 1. Teachers | should communicate [regularly] | with parents/guardians | regarding the affairs of their children or wards. |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue | ||
| 2. They | should respect | the confidence of both parents, children/wards | who may bring personal matters to their notice |
| Senser | Mental | Phenomenon | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | ||
| Mood | Residue |
Ideational meta-function: Clause (1) contains Participants (Actor and Goal) + Process (material) + circumstance. Clause (2) contains Participants (Senser and Phenomenon) + Process (Mental) + Circumstance. Interpersonal Metafunction: Clause (1) contains mood = “Teachers” + finite. Residue = “parents/guardians regarding the affairs of their children or wards”. Clause (2) contains mood = “They” + finite. Textual Meta-function: Clause (1) contains Theme = “Teachers”, andRheme = should communicate [regularly with] parents/guardians regarding the affairs of their children or wards. Clause (2) contains theme = or, and Rheme = “should respect the confidence of both parents, children/wards who may bring personal matters to their notice”.
“Teachers” is the actor and the unmarked theme of clause 1. It also combines with finite to form the mood and the material process at the level of interpersonal meta-function and ideational meta-function respectively. “Teachers” and “should communicate [regularly]” represent a modulated modality which encourages a practice. The use of “regularly” suggests how persistent the practice should be. “Should communicate” represents given information which indicate conciliated command. Goal (with parents/guardians) is also participants in the ideational meta-function. The clause contains Circumstance (regarding the affairs of their children or wards) stating what parents/guardians should be communicated about.
“Teachers” is fronted as theme to indicate the target of the clause. This theme is separated from rheme at the level of meta-function. The theme of the clause “Teachers” is unmarked. This shows that the theme is employed to indicate the target audience the rheme of the clause is meant for.
In clause 2 is made up of Senser (They), phenomenon is “the confidence of both parents, children/wards”, and Circumstance (who may bring personal matters to their notice). The process is mental (Should respect), and the use of this process corresponds with the abstract phenomenon (the confidence of both parents, children/wards), which is, cognitive.
In the clause, the imperative mood of given shows that the writer is not involved. Mood is reflected in “they” and “should respect”. It shows that the writer has some instructions to render to the audience who are mentioned in the preceding clause. The unmarked theme “they” provides a cohesive tie that link the theme of the preceding clause and succeeding clause in the linear thematic progression.
4.2.1.16. Corrupt Practice
| 1. Teachers | should not ask or receive | gifts or gratification | for themselves or for others | in any kind whatsoever for selfish motive. |
| Actor | Material | Goal | Beneficiary | Circumstance |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue | |||
| 2. Corruptpractices | Here | include having | canal knowledge of a learner, bribery and indecent relationship with a learner, etc. | |
| Token | Circumstance | Relational | Value | |
| Theme | Rheme | |||
| Mood | Residue |
Interpersonal meta-function = 1 mood (teachers + modality + do) and Residue (should not ask or receive gifts or gratification …). Textual Meta-function = theme (Teachers), Rheme (should not ask or receive gifts or gratification …).Ideational meta-function = participants (Actor, Goal, and Beneficiary), process (material), and circumstance. Interpersonal Meta-function = 2 Mood (corrupt … include having), Residue (include having canal knowledge of a learner …). Textual Meta-function = Theme (corrupt practices), Rheme (here include having canal knowledge of a learner…).Ideational meta-function = Participants (Token and Value), Process (relational), and Circumstance.
The ideational representation of clause 1 shows that the Actor is “teachers” and its complex Material process is “should not ask or receive”. The goal is “gifts or gratification” and the Beneficiary which is “for themselves or for others” is followed by “in any kind whatsoever for selfish motive” as circumstance. In clause 2, the ideational representation has “corrupt practices” as Token. It has identifying Relational process (include having) and “canal knowledge of a learner, bribery and indecent relationship with a learner, etc.”
Clause “1” suggests a prescribed rule for teachers. “Should not ask or receive” comprises a negative modality and a “non-finite do” which suggests an issuance of a commandencapsulated in the Goal (gifts or gratification). In this case,teachers are dissuaded from receiving gifts either “for themselves or for others” (Beneficiary). “In any kind whatsoever for selfish motive” is dual Circumstance. It comprises quality and purpose. “In any kind whatsoever” is circumstance of quality, while “for selfish motive” is that of purpose. Theme (Teachers) is unmarked; however it is used appropriately to foreground the group that is being addressed.In terms of thematic progression, clause is the initiating clause, and as such, it contains the initiating theme (Teachers).
In the ideational representation of clause 2 “corrupt practices” with inanimate properties is Token, while “include having” forms the identifying Relational process. Value is “canal knowledge of a learner, bribery and indecent relationship with a learner, etc”, while Circumstance is “here”. As a clause with expansion role, clause 2 contains identifying Relational process that creates room for value. Value (canal knowledge of a learner, bribery and indecent relationship with a leaner, etc) elaborates Token (corrupt practices) by specifying it. “Here” is Circumstance of location which is unconnected with professional jurisdiction or situational context rather than geographical location. The use of this clause helps to specify through exemplification, the behaviours that constitute corrupt practices in the teaching profession.
The theme “corrupt practices” is a marked one and it is appropriately applied because it is the fundamental target of the clause; of course, the Relational process is a vehicle for conveying the theme. Meanwhile, value plays the appositional role of expanding the theme. Thus, the clause contains a linear thematic structure where the rheme of the initiating clause (should not ask or receive gifts or gratification) becomes the theme of the preceding clause (corrupt practices).
4.2.2. Clause Complexes of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes
KEYS:
| = hypotactic boundary; || = paratactic boundary;
[…] = clause embedded as Qualifier in a noun group;
Parataxis = initiating (1); Continuing (2)
Hypotaxis = Dominant (a); Dependent (b)
4.2.2.1. Ideological Influence
||| 1 Teachers should not use their positions || =2 to spread their political religious or other ideologies among learners. |||
Clause 17 is a paratactic elaboration. The complexstructure holds two clauses of equal status. The former is a finite clause while the latter is a non-finite clause. The theme of the initiating clause is unmarked, while that of the clause continuing clause is marked. Clause 2 elaborates clause 1 by exemplification. For instance, it exemplifies what teachers should not use their position to do. The process type for clause 1- should not use– is the material process, that is, the process of doing. It is a warning of what teachers ought not to do. The process type is an absolute command, a prohibition. Clause 2 contains the material process (to spread); the marked theme in a continuous thematic structure. It tells what “teachers” (hypertheme) must not use their position to do.
This perfect use of paratactic elaboration enables the addresser to specify with clear examples the “ideologies” teachers are not to impose on the learners. Some of the ideological beliefs specified include “political, religious and so on”. This paratactic elaboration helps addresser to state the most sensitive of these ideologies leaving out the lesser ones which are in any case applicable as the case may be.
4.2.2.2. Corporal punishment
||| α Teachers should not [under any circumstance] administer any corporal punishment|| xβ except otherwise permitted by the school authority. |||
This is a hypotactic enhancement. It is made up ofdominant and dependent clauses. This entails a relationship of super-ordinate and subordinate. For instance, the dominant clause is, “Teachers should not [under any circumstance] administer any corporal punishment” while the dependent is,“except otherwise permitted by the school authority”. This implies that in this hypotactic enhancement, clause “b”expands clause “a” by giving an alternative or an exception to the condition stated in clause “a”. For instance, clause “a” contains an adverbial phrase of degree (under any circumstance) which accentuates the degree of rigidity of what teachers are prohibited doing. However, clause “b” introduces another message that lessens the rigidity of the rule with the use of enhancing components “except otherwise…”
The use of hypotactic enhancement enables the addresser to put across the fact that even though teachers are not in any way (under any circumstance) allowed to use corporal punishment, there are instances of exception. The hypotactic enhancement has detached the rigidity properties of the policy. The addresser intends to express that in dealing with learners at that level, corporal punishment; should not be utterly interdicted rather it should be monitored by the school authorities. This message is carefully implanted through the hypotactic enhancement structure. In terms of thematic structure, the clause follows derived thematic progress where the theme of the initiating clause is the hypertheme of the continuing clause.
4.2.2.3. Sexual Misconduct and Related Abuse of Offices
||| 1 Teachers should not use their position || =2 to humiliate, threaten, intimidate, harass or blackmail any learner ||| =3 to submit to selfish motives || +4 or to engage in sexual misconduct, drug addiction and trafficking, cultism, human trafficking and other related offences. |||
Clause 19 is a univariate complex structure that houses four clauses of finite and non-finite structures. It is a multifarious paratactic elaboration (=) (of exposition and exemplification) and paratactic extension (+). “Teachers should not use their position” is the only finite group in the structure with, and as such, it is the initiating and superordinate clause. The rest are non-finite without tense elements and explicit themes, except recoverable from the context. That is, through linking subordinate variants with the superordinate structure. This shows a relationship of dependent structures building on one another within the same univariate complexity.
Clause l contains a material process (should not use). It implies a command on what teachers ought not to do. Clause 2“to humiliate, threaten, intimidate, harass or blackmail any learner” is an exemplification of clause 1. For instance, it elaborates those areas or the various ways teachers should not use their position of authority negatively against the learners. Clause 3 “to submit to selfish motives” is an elaborated exposition which represents intentionality. That is, the intended purpose. lt elaborates that the intended motive behind teachers using their position in a negative way might be to achieve some selfish goals.
Clause 3 is closely followed by a paratactic extension structure (clause 4). The paratactic extension “or to engage in sexual misconduct, drug addiction and trafficking, cultism, human trafficking and other related offences” allows the addresser to expand the clause or add something new to selfish motives. The use of this complex clause enables the addresser fuse as many related information as possible in order to encapsulate all that is needed to make the message quite pellucid and unambiguous.
The superordinate clause contains an unmarked theme (Teachers), while the other three subordinate clauses draw their themes from the unmarked theme of the superstructure. In other words, their themes are recovered from the progressive context. In terms of thematic progression, the univariate structure follows a derived thematic progression.
4.2.2.4. Confidentiality
||| α Teachers should not reveal information about the learner |=β given in confidence to them |xβ except by law or in the interest of learner, parents/guardians or the public.|||
Clause 20 is an amalgam of hypotactic elaboration (=) and enhancement (x). The clause comprises a superordinatestructure and two dependent structures. Thus, it exemplifies a relationship of structural inequality between the three clauses. Clause “a” (Teachers should not reveal information about the learner) is the dominant clause with the independent role of an unmarked hypertheme. Meanwhile, the other two contingentstructures, labeled “β” in each case, are dependent.
Clause “a” contains the core message which prohibits teachers from divulging any information about the learner. However, stopping at this point it would be simply illogical. This is because teachers, as part of their job description, give report about learners. That is why the following clause elaborates by specifying the kind of information that should not be revealed. Thus, the adjectival clause “=β”, “given in confidence to them”, qualifies not the entire preceding clause, but only information. The clause specifies that not all information about the learner should be treated in confidence except the one given behind closed doors.
On the other hand, clause “xβ” “except by law or in the interest of the learner; parents/guardians or the public” is a hypotactic enhancement. It is an enhancement of the two preceding clauses. That is, “a” and “=β”. For instance, it provides immunity to the core message of prohibitionimplanted in clause “a”, and elaborates the message entrenched in clause “=β”. Clause “a” says, do not reveal information about the learner, clause, “=β” says specifically the information given in confidence; then, clause “xβ” concludes that such information can be released if it is in the best interest of the learner and two parties.
4.2.2.5. Examination malpractice
||| 1 Teachers should keep all examination records and knowledge at their disposal with absolute secrecy || +2 and should not [[in any manner whatsoever]] aid and abet examination malpractice by any learners. ||| ||| +3 They are obliged to report all cases of examination malpractice, [[which come to their knowledge,]] to the appropriate authorities [without delay]. |||
This clause is a paratactic extension. It comprises three dominant structures of varying degrees of expansion. Clause 1is a command stated in an affirmative structure that suggests an admonition. It says “teachers should keep all examination records and knowledge at their disposal with absolute secrecy”. As a finite clause, all information that would aid understanding is present, thereby, making the message lucid.
However, clause 2 is a non-finite clause compounded with the preceding clause by a co-coordinator “and”. The presence of the negative modulation, “should not”, in the clause is an overt prohibition stated inflexibly in an imperative form. This clause introduced by “and” is a paratactic extension that does not elaborate the preceding clause, but introduces newinformation. For instance, it reads “and (teachers) should not [in any manner whatsoever] aid and abet examination malpractice by any learners”. The use of the adverbial phrase of degree, “in any manner whatsoever”, in the clause further heightens the intransigence of that part of the policy.
Clause 3 is fastened to the preceding clauses (1 and 2)through a cohesive device called substitution. As such, it is not analyzed separately because of this cohesive tie. The use of “they” provides a link of substitution to teachers in clause 1. There is also a case of lexical cohesion through the repetition of “examination malpractice” in clause 3 which is mentioned earlier in clause 2. Clause 3 is an obligation that specifies an instruction to be carried out. The embedded adjectival clause “which come to their knowledge” qualifies the nominal group – “all cases of examination malpractice”. The adverbial phrase of manner “without delay” post-modifies report where it highlights how quickly the report should be made.
Thus, it is obvious that teachers are obliged to keep examination information secret and not to help learners in examination, but rather, they should quickly report cases of examination malpractices to the authorities concerned. This univariate structure follows both derived and linear thematic progression patterns, as in, clauses 1 and 2, then 1 and 3 respectively.
4.2.2.6. Respect
||| α Teachers should respect both their senior and junior colleagues [in all dealings] |=β by rendering help and assisting them to attain highest professional goals. |||
Clause 22 is a hypotactic enhancement where clause “a” is dominant and clause “b” is dependent. Clause “a”, being a finite clause, has a core obligation message embedded in a declarative structure. For instance, it obliged teachers to respect two groups: senior and junior colleagues. This clause is embedded with an adverbial phrase of manner – “in all dealings” – which suggests how and the areas the respect should be accorded. It says in all ramifications. Clause “b”, “by rendering help and assisting them to attain highest professional goals”, is not an elaboration but an enhancement relaying what can be done to attain professional goals.
Except for this hypotactic enhancement, it would have been difficult to directly or logically fuse “… respect senior and junior colleagues” in clause “a” with “by rendering to attain goals” in clause “b”. However, with this hypotactic structure, the writer has been able to fuse totally new information to the preceding clause in this relatively less complex Hypotaxis. Then, it means that teachers should in all areas respect all colleagues by helping one another attain maximal professional goals.
Clause “a” is dominant structure with an unmarked theme (Teachers). On the other hand, clause “b” is dependent without obvious theme in a derived thematic progression.
4.2.2.7. Canvassing
||| I Teachers should not unduly advertise themselves || 2 in order to gain undue advantage over colleagues || 3 or to suggest that they possess extra-ordinary knowledge and skills [[which they do not actually have.]] |||
Clause 23 is a complex clause that contains three clauses of equal status. The first clause is the only finite and initiating clause in the univariate structure. The rest are continuing and non-finite clauses whose subjects are only recoverable from the context. The process type in clause 1 is material process which is made up of a modulation (should not) and an inclination (unduly). This suggests a warning against unjustifiable self-importance against colleagues.
The second clause, – “in order to gain undue advantage over colleagues”, – is a paratactic enhancement of the initiating clause. The third clause – “or to suggest that they possess extra-ordinary knowledge and skills” – is an extension with an embedded nominal clause, “which they do not actually have”.
The core message of the clause complex is expressed in the initiating clause which bluntly warns teachers against unjustified self-advertisement. The second is an expansion of the initiating clause. It is a paratactic enhancement which describes “unduly advertise themselves” stating the purpose for such unprofessional practice that intends to gain an undueadvantage over colleagues.
Clause 3 is also a paratactic enhancement of the initiating clause which gives another reason why teachers “unduly advertise themselves”. For instance, it says teachers should not do that so as to suggest that they possess extra-ordinary knowledge and skills. The adjectival group – “which they do not actually have” – is a hypotactic enhancement. As an embedded nominal clause, its role is to qualify the nominal group – “knowledge and skills” – in clause 3.
Thus, the message in this complex structure is that teachers should not advertise themselves undeservedly for whatever purposes. Examples of such purposes are advanced in the two continuing clauses (2 and 3). Finally, the univariate structure which follows derived thematic progression.
4.2.2.8. Teamwork
||| 1 Teachers should seek assistance from colleagues in tasks [[beyond their management or professional ability [when necessary]]] ||+2 and take delight in teamwork. |||
This is a paratactic extension. Clause 1 is an initiating clause, while clause 2 is the continuing clause. The initiating clause contains the core message while the continuing clause extends it with new information. A paratactic extension is much more appropriate for this message because seeking assistance from colleagues and taking delight in teamwork are two separate independent structures with equal linguistic status. This paratactic presentation helps each message sticks out rather than allowing one to be subsumed in the other.
In clause 1, there is an embedded adjectival group with a qualifying role. For instance, in the first part of the clause, teachers are urged to seek assistance not on all given tasks. The embedded adjectival group specifies the kind of task they would seek assistance from colleagues for. It says “tasks beyond their management or professional ability” especially when necessary. We can as well refer to this structure as hypotactic enhancement because it augments the super-ordinate clause. “When necessary” is an adverbial phrase of time with partial temporal properties. For instance, it does not specify the time to seek assistance; rather it specifies genuineness and rationality.
“Teamwork” in clause 2 and “assistance from colleagues” in clause l provide lexical coherence in the two structures which jointly offers an explicit cohesive message of multiparty effort or collaboration. The derived thematic structure unifies the hypertheme (Teachers) in clause 1 and the recoverable theme in clause 2 thereby harmonizing the superordinate and subordinate clauses into a univariate structure.
4.2.2.9. Symbiotic Relationship
||| 1 The relationship between teachers should [at all times] be mutually beneficial || +2 and aimed at lifting the profession to the highest level. |||
This is a paratactic extension. Clause 1 is the initiating finite clause with a marked theme – “the relationship”. Clause2 is non-finite, and it is a continuing clause in the complex structure. Of course, as a non-finite clause, it shares the same theme with the initiating clause.
The modulation in “should [at all times] be” indicates “usuality” which also shows a certain degree of obligation that suggests apparent tone of command. However, modalization and modulation are implicit in the continuing clause. Thus, the first and second clauses suggest that the relationship between teachers should be founded on shared support which should go a long way in promoting the teaching profession. The process type in clause 1 (should … be) is a Relational process ofattributive. This suggests that the relationship between teachers should be based on mutual attribute.
Clause 2, which is a continuing clause, connects a new idea (aimed at lifting the profession to the highest level) to clause 1 through a coordinate conjunction – “and”. The process type in clause 2 (aimed at lifting) is Mental process; a process of cognition, feeling and affection. This suggests a mentality of moving the profession forward.
The univariate clause exhibits a derived thematic structure where the marked theme of the superordinate clause (The relationship) is the hypertheme that anchors the rheme of the first and second clauses. The use of paratactic extension is effective in synthesizing those two ideas in the clause complex.
4.2.2.10. Respect of Contract
||| 1Teachers should strive to fulfill contractual obligations || +2and to render their services only in accordance with the terms of contract or the law. |||
Clause 26 is a paratactic extension. It is a complex structure that involves two clauses of equal grammatical status that are joined by a coordinator “and”. Clause 1 is the initiating clause while clause 2 is the continuing clause. The initiating clause – “Teacher should strive to fulfill contractual obligations” – is a finite clause with the unmarked theme – “teachers”. In this clause, teachers are obliged to endeavor tocarry out their contractual obligations. The modalization – “should” – conciliates the tone of command in the interaction. Notwithstanding, it still suggests the fact that teachers are obliged to do everything possible to fulfill their contractualcommitments.
Clause 2 is a non-finite structure that is glued with clause 1through the conjunction – “and”. It is an extension of the message already begun in clause 1 where new information is introduced to consolidate in the initiating clause. In other words, the clause is an extension of the obligation message where an embedded circumstantial group – “only in accordance with the terms of contract or the law” – modifies “render”. This attachment specifies how the service is to be rendered.
The complexity in the clause follows a derived thematic progression where the implied theme of the second clause is subsumed in the hypertheme of the superordinate structure. Therefore, the message contained in this paratactic extension is that teachers are encouraged to try to fulfill their own part of their job contract and not to go beyond terms or condition of service, or the law as the case may be.
4.2.2.11. Respects for Parents/Guardians
||| 1 Teachers should show courtesy and respect to parents/guardians || +2 and offer maximum cooperation in dealing with issues concerning their children or wards. |||
Clause 27 is a paratactic extension. As a paratactic structure, there are two clauses of equal status; the first is initiating and the second continuing. The processes involved in the two clauses are the Material and Mental processes in the initiating clause and continuing clause respectively. For instance, we have “Show courtesy and respect” and “offer maximum cooperation”. The initiating clause initiates that teachers should show regard for parents and guardians. The continuing clause adds that teachers should cooperate hugely with parents in dealing with their wards.
The pronoun (their) in the continuing clause introduces a disturbing semantic ambiguity. For example, the pronoun (their) introduced at the tail of the clause can be linked to any of the antecedents – teachers or parents/guardians.
This paratactic extension weaves a message of addition in clause 1 with the message in clause 2 through the conjunction – “and”. This structural arrangement brings out the cohesion, and employing paratactic extension to marry the two separate ideas is appropriate because a paratactic extension gives room fortwo ideas to be encapsulated in a univariate structure.
In this derived thematic progression, the superordinate structure contains a hypertheme that is shared by the implicit theme of the subordinate structure. Thus, the message suggests that teachers are to show respect as well as work hand in hand with parents in dealing with issues concerning students.
4.2.2.12. Favouritism
||| α Teachers should resist taking gifts, favours, and hospitality from parents and guardians, [which are likely to influence them] | xβ to show favours to their children/wards in the performance of their duty. |||
Clause 28 is a hypotactic enhancement. The complex clause contains two clauses; the first clause being dominant and the second clause dependent. The dominant clause states that – “teachers should resist taking gifts, favours, and hospitality from parents and guardians which are likely to influence them”, whereas, the dependent clause is – “to show favours to their children/wards in the performance of their duty”.
The hypertheme (Teachers) of the clause is contained in the dominant clause and its rheme gives an instruction that teachers avoid accepting gifts, favours and hospitality from parents and guardians that will possibly influence them. The mood suggests an implicit order that teachers must follow. This initiating clause embodies an embedded adjectival group (which are likely to influence them) which serves as an enhancement to the nominal group – “taking gifts, favours, and hospitality”. The embedded adjectival group modifies not the entire dominant clause but a noun group, which is, gifts, favours, and hospitality. The embedded clause enhances the clause by suggesting why teachers should not take such offers from parents.
This univariate structure exhibits a derived thematic progression where the superordinate clause with an unmarked hypertheme subsumes the implied theme of the depending clause. Encapsulating the message of the clause in a hypotactic enhancement structure by the writer is apt because the clause contains a straight forward idea that does not require any elaboration and extension.
4.2.2.13. Association with parents/guardians
||| αTeachers should encourage and actively participate in parent/teachers association (PTA) || xβ [which is likely to impart positively on the learner and general educational programmes] |||
Clause 29 is a hypotactic enhancement. This clause is made up of dominant and dependent clauses. The clause complex is in active voice with “teachers” as an unmarked theme. The mood is between “teachers” and “should encourage and actively participate” with the latter asking teachers to take part in Parent/Teachers Associations (PTA). This dominant clause contains the main message as well as the hypertheme of the univariate structure. In terms of interpersonal meta-function, the clause states uncomplicatedly what teachers are to do as captured in the rheme. Material process of doing (should encourage and actively participate) especially the modulated modality conciliates this command.
The dependent clause is an embedded adverbial group – “which is likely to impart positively on the learner and general educational programmes” – that serve as an enhancement to the dominant clause. In other words, it modifies the process of doing (should encourage and actively participate) in the dominant clause. As adverbial group, the enhancing clause states the purpose and the importance of teachers’ participation in PTA. For example, the enhancement justifies that teachers’ participation will yield positive impacts on the general education system.
This univariate structure exhibits a derived thematic progression where the superordinate clause with an unmarked hypertheme (Teachers) subsumes the implied theme of the depending clause. Hypotactic enhancement in this message is appropriate because the main idea is captured in the dominant clause while the enhancement covers modification elements. Thus, the message in clause 28 succinctly obliged teachers to take part in PTA as their participation is likely to positively affect the educational system.
4.2.2.14. Role of Teachers in the Society
||| 1 Teachers in the society should be embodiment of exemplary citizenship, Integrity, and industry || +2 and participate actively in the development of both their immediate and wider communities. |||
Clause 30 is a paratactic extension. There are two major clauses in this complex structure. While clause 1 – “Teachers in the society should be embodiment of exemplary citizenship, integrity, and industry” – is the initiating, clause 2 – “and participate actively in the development of both their immediate and wider communities” – is continuing. The two clauses formed a univariate structure through the conjunction – “and”.
This shows that the two ideas propose two separate instructions in one clause complex using different processes. The process in clause 1 (should be) is a relational process; a life style that teaches ought to live or exhibit. The process in clause 2 is material, that is, the process of doing. This process tasks teachers to do something and what it tasks them to do is to get involved in the development of their immediate and wider communities. In summary, initiating clause explicates who teachers should be, while the continuing clause tasks teachers to do something.
This univariate paratactic extension follows a derived thematic progression where the initiating clause contains a hypertheme (Teachers) subsumes the implied theme of the continuing clause. Thus, in the clause complex, teachers are obliged to live lives worthy of emulation and also take part in community development.
4.2.2.15. Advice to Government/Stakeholders
|||αTeachers have the responsibility (where possible] || xβ to advise government and stakeholders [on the provision of appropriate educational infrastructures, Programme, and funding].|||
Clause 31 is a hypotactic enhancement. This clause complex is structurally made up of a dominant clause and a dependent clause, which is, an enhancement. The message of the clause complex is embedded in the dominant clause – “Teachers have the responsibility (where possible]” contains arelational process – “have”. The use the relational process does not suggest an explicit order or command. That is to say that the process is not imperative. However, teachers are reminded of a responsibility they have. The adverbial group – “where possible” portrays a neutral mood that disassociate the clause from being categorized as a strict command. In other words, the use of the adverbial group deactivates the rigidity of the message thereby infiltrating flexibility.
Clause “b” is dependent. It contains a material process – “to advise”. This material process of doing encourages teachers to do a task. Meanwhile, the neutral mood initiated in the superordinate clause extends to the dependent clause. Also, the embedded prepositional group “[on the provision of appropriate educational infrastructures, programme and funding]” suggests the areas teachers can give advice on.
This univariate paratactic extension follows a derived thematic progression where the initiating clause contains a hypertheme (Teachers) that subsumes the implied theme of the continuing clause. The use of hypotactic enhancement here is appropriate because the clause complex contains a single central idea and that is expressed in the dominant clause and the enhancement comes in to augment the idea.
4.2.2.16. Tolerance
||| 1 Teachers should accommodate the diverse cultures, religions, other ideologies and practices of the society || 2 and promote good inter-human relations. |||
Clause 32 is a paratactic extension which contains two clauses of equal grammatical and structural weight. The former clause (Teachers should accommodate the diverse cultures, religions, other ideologies and practices of the society) is initiating, while the latter (and promote good inter-human relations) is the continuing clause. The process in the initiating clause is the mental process (should accommodate), which is the process of cognition. Mood in the initiating clause mediates between “teachers and the mental process (should accommodate) which reflects a charge to accept or admit the diverse ways of life of the society.
To add to the initiating message, clause 2 contains a Material process (promote). This suggests a charge to foster human relation. The use of “and” presents an independent idea that is not subordinate to the initiating clause. Altogether, the two clauses with two different but related ideas are woven into one complex structure to form a paratactic extension. This fusion is made possible through the conjunction – “and”.
This univariate paratactic extension follows a derived thematic progression where the initiating clause contains a hypertheme (Teachers) that subsumes the implied theme of the continuing clause. Thus, what the paratactic extension suggests is that teachers should embrace the diverse ways of life of the society so as to foster inter-personal relations.
4.2.2.17. Personal Habit
||| 1α Teacher should cultivate personal habits |=β [that are capable of portraying the profession to be of very high standards] || 2 and avoid indecent behaviours and social vices |=β [such as drunkenness, smoking in the public, indecent dressing, breaching of public peace, dishonesty, fraud, etc.] |||
Clause 33 is a cloudy paratactic extension that comprises two basic ideas expressed in two different clauses of equal grammatical strengths. The first clause is initiating and it is made up of a dominant structure (Teachers should cultivate personal habits) and dependent structure (that are capable of portraying the profession to be of very high standards). The second is continuing and it is made up of another dominant structure (and avoid indecent behaviours and social vices) and a nominal group (such as drunkenness, smoking in the public, indecent dressing, breaching of public peace, dishonesty, fraud etc).
The process type in the initiating clause that expresses the message of the clause is a Mental process (should cultivate), that is, the process of cognition. It is a charge which submits that teachers are to develop certain personal habits. Meanwhile, clause “b” (that are capable of portraying the profession to be of very high standards) is an elaboration of the nominal group – “personal habits”. It is an example of an adjectival group in the traditional grammar. It is employed to expand on personal habits.
In clause 2, the process type is the material process (avoid indecent), which is, the process of doing. This process issues a charge to teachers to desist from indecent behaviours and social vices. The examples of such vices are encased in the nominal group that follows it – “such as drunkenness, smoking in the public, indecent dressing, breaching of public peace, dishonesty, fraud, etc”.
This univariate paratactic extension follows a derived thematic progression where the initiating clause contains a hypertheme (Teachers) that subsumes the implied theme of the continuing clause. Thus, the paratactic structure contains two clauses with their different attendant ideas and modifications, and these clauses are unified through a cohesive tie – “and”; a conjunction joining the two clauses to form the complex.
4.2.2.18. Inspiration
||| 1 Teachers should be able to inspire subordinates [by exemplary character or behavior] || 2 and show unalloyed commitment to the demands of their offices. |||
Clause 34 is a paratactic extension with two different ideas to communicate to the listener. These ideas are condensed in two clauses of equal grammatical status. Clause 1 (teachers should be able to inspire subordinates by exemplary character or behavior) is the initiating clause, while clause 2 (and show unalloyed commitment to the demands of their offices) is the continuing clause.
The message of clause 1 is contained in its complex process type (should be able to inspire). This is the process of cognition (Mental process) which does not indicate a charge to carry out a task because of the accompaniment of “should be able” which suggests potentiality rather than an explicitcommand or an order, or even an obligation. The embedded prepositional group is an enhancement of the process (…inspire). This, then, suggests that teachers are to stimulate their juniors by living exemplary good lives.
However, another idea is added to this in clause 2. The message in clause 2 is reflected the simple process type – “show” – which is the material process. This suggests that teachers are charged to show pure commitment to their professional demands.
The clauses are unified through a cohesive tie – “and”. The two clauses follow a derived thematic progression where the unmarked theme (Teachers) of the initiating clause is distributed across the two clauses. The use of paratactic extension is appropriate because the clause complex made room for two equal ideas the writer needs to communicate.
4.2.2.19. Motivation
||| α Teachers should give necessary incentives to subordinates ||xβ to empower them || xβ to advance and excel in their professional careers. |||
Clause 35 is a hypotactic enhancement which is an embodiment of a dominant clause (Teachers should give necessary incentives to subordinates) and two dependent clauses (to empower them || to advance and excel in their professional careers). The former contains a process type known as the Material process (should give). The process contains the central message of the clause complex. As a process of doing, “should give” suggests a charge that teachers are to carry out.
However, this message is enhanced in the dependent clauses. In other words, the two dependent clauses expand the idea in the dominant clause. In traditional terms, the clauses form adverbial group of purpose/reason which modifies the entire dominant clause. For instance, they express the purpose or reason for giving such incentives to the junior teachers. Thus, the message of the complex structure is that teachers are charged to offer their juniors the required motivation that will help them attain their full professional career height.
In terms of interpersonal meta-function, the mood in the dominant clause alternates between (Teachers) and (should give). For the dependent clauses, the mood is between the hypertheme (teachers) and “to empower” as well as “to advance and excel”. The clause follows a derived thematic progression where the hypertheme in the dominant clause is shared across the univariate structure.
4.2.2.20. Liability of Teachers
||| α Teachers are bound to be liable for any acts or omissions ||xβ [that run contrary to professional standards || xβ [or fall short of commonly held values, practices and norms.] |||
Clause 36 is a hypotactic complex enhancement which contains a dominant clause and a dependent clause that express one central idea. The central message of the complex clause is enshrined in the dominant clause (Teachers are bound to be liable for any acts or omissions). The idea is expressed in the process of the clause. In this case, it is the relational process type (are bound to be liable for), that is, identifying relational process which suggests that teachers are held responsible for whatever they do and fail to do.
However, this process type in the dominant clause does not seem to express an overt instruction or a command that must be followed. Rather, the relational process made it appear more like a notification. Besides this central message, the clause complex also contains a complex enhancement ([that run contrary to professional standards] [or fall short of commonly held values, practices and norms]).
The first example (that run contrary to professional standards) is an adjectival group that qualifies “any acts or omissions” in the dominant clause. The second example (or fall short of commonly held values, practices and norms) enhances the message of the first dependent clause by restating it in a more clear way.
The dominant clause contains a hypertheme (Teachers) that is shared across the univariate structure. This univariate structure follows a derived thematic progression. Therefore, the message in the hypotactic enhancement is that teachers are held responsible for whatever they do and fail to do that is not in line with the professional standards or the core principles.
4.2.2.21. Open Mindedness
||| 1 Teachers should be open-minded to their colleagues, learners, the general public || 2 and help to bring to their attention all information [that may be essential for their professional growth, development and general welfare.] |||
Clause 37 is a paratactic extension. There are two clauses in this complex: the initiating clause (teachers should be open-minded to their colleagues, learners, the general public) and the continuing clause (and help to bring to their attention all information {that may be essential for their professional growth, development and general welfare). Two separate ideas are expressed in this clause complex. The first message is enshrined in clause 1, that is, the initiating clause, while the second message is in clause 2 (the continuing clause).
The process type in clause 1 is relational process (should be), which is, relation of attributive. This process does not suggest an explicit order. Rather, it recommends an attribute that teachers ought to exhibit while dealing with others. For instance, it suggests that teachers should be unbiased or liberal with their colleagues and others.
Clause 2 is an extension that adds a message to the initiating clause. The message is encapsulated in its process type (help to bring to), which is, the material process. This does not express an explicit command but a charge with a responsible. “Their” in clause 2 provides a coherent link and it is a cataphoric reference to “colleagues”, and not the entire nominal group. This means that teachers are charged to keep their colleagues abreast of all the available information.
The elaborated expansion (that may be essential for their professional growth, development and general welfare) is traditionally an adjectival group which elaborates “all information” by specifying the kind of information that should be brought to the attention of “colleagues”. The thematic progression in the univariate structure follows a derived thematic pattern where the hypertheme in the initiating clauseis shared across the two clauses in the clause complex. Thus, this paratactic extension is appropriate for the two ideas captured in the clause.
4.2.2.22. Incentive for Good Behaviour
||| α Teachers || =β [who distinguish themselves in the discharge of their professional duties] || may have the opportunity of receiving recognition from Teachers Registration council of Nigeria || =β [in form of merit awards as well as recommendation for national honours and other benefits]. |||
Clause 38 is a hypotactic elaboration that is relatively cloudy. As it is characteristic of hypotactic structures, the complex is made up of one fundamental idea and the idea is expressed in the dominant clause. The dependent clause – “who distinguish themselves in the discharge of their professional duties” – is subsumed in the structure of the dominant clause (teachers … may have the opportunity of receiving recognition from Teachers Registration council of Nigeria in form of merit awards as well as recommendation for national honours and other benefits).
The process type for the dominant clause is a material process, that is, a process of doing which is captured in – “may have (the opportunity of) receiving”. The process component – “may have” – is an element of modalization which suggests probability. This process is far from being suggestive of an obligation or an instruction or a command. The process is an expression of explicit likelihood and unlikelihood of “the opportunity” to receive the acknowledgement from the authorities by the teachers who may merit it.
Clause “b” – “who distinguish themselves in the discharge of their professional duties” – is an elaboration of “teachers” in the dominant clause. Traditionally, the elaborated clause is an adjectival group which qualifies “teachers” by specifying the category of teachers who would possibly receive recognition. Also, “in form of merit awards as well as recommendation for national honours and other benefits” is a complex elaboration. For instance, it expands the process component – “receiving”.In other words, it specifies the kind of recognition to receive.
This complex clause contains a derived thematic progression where the hypertheme of the superordinate structure is shared across subordinate clauses. The beauty of this complex hypotactic elaboration is that it has given room for modifications thereby disambiguating the message and making it quite informative since it is not a command.
4.2.2.23. Interpretation of Teachers Code of Conduct (TCC)
||| xα In the case of any conflict arising from the interpretation of this code of conduct, || β such a case should be brought to the Registrar/chief Executive, Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria for clarification.|||
Clause 39 is a hypotactic enhancement with a dominant and a dependent clause. Clause “a” (In the case of any conflict arising from the interpretation of this Code of Conduct) is a dependent clause, while clause “b” (such a case should bebrought to the Registrar/Chief Executive, Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria for clarification) is the dominant clause.
Considering the fact that the clause complex is in passive voice, Mood is missing; that is, the interaction between the subject entity and the process type. The process type in the dependent clause (clause “a”) is the Relational process; and it is relational process of identity. This process suggests origin of which, in this instance, it points to where conflict could emanate from. This process type does not suggest any command and the clause is less informative because it initiated an incomplete message that runs into the dominant clause.
Clause “a” is an enhancement of the clause “b”. Itcontains a material process (should be brought to), a process of doing which offers a solution to the problem initiated in clause “a”. Continuing thematic progression runs through the complex structure because an unmarked theme (In the case of any conflict…) is fronted in the second clause.
The message of this hypotactic enhancement is that whereissues arise in the process of interpretation of the codes, the authorities should be referred to for clarification. So, the clause complex contains two ideas but one is a solution to the other as such a hypotactic elaboration is appropriate for it.
4.3. Data Discussion
In the course of the research, 20 clauses are collected, represented in tables and analyzed using the basic tenets of Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistic theory underideational meta-function, interpersonal meta-function, and textual meta-function. The study analyzes fifteen (15)monotransitive clauses and five (5) ditransitive clauses. The ditransitive clauses indicate the presence of Beneficiary whose material process contains Goal. Below are two tables which summarise the result of the clause study.
Table 1: Ideational meta-function
| Processes | Participants | Circumstance |
| Material 12 | 12 | 19 |
| Mental 5 | 5 | 5 |
| Relational 3 | 3 | 3 |
| Verbal = | = | = |
| Existential = | = | = |
| Behavioural = | = | = |
Table 2: Interpersonal and Textual Meta-functions
| Mood 20 | Residue 2O |
| Theme 20 | Rheme 20 |
At the level of ideational meta-function, there are participants, processes and circumstance in the clauses analyzed. For instance, in the analyzed twenty (20) clauses, each contains circumstance.
Circumstances are used to specify “when”, “where”, “why”, and “how” of the processes. The Circumstance includes adverbial phrases, adjectival group, and prepositional phrases that indicate time, reason, manner, place, and instances where the obligations are to be carried out. Participants in the clauses are interpreted across Actor, Token, Senser and Carrier depending on the Process type. For instance, Actor attracts Material process of doing. Senser associates with Mental process, while Token and Carrier go with Relational process of identifying and Relational process of attributive respectively.
The major Processes, employed in the clauses are Material, Mental and Relational processes. The Material process is the process of doing in which teachers are instructed to carry out a given obligation. This process is predominantly used in the clauses to suggest that teachers’ codes and ethics constitute an embodiment of obligations and instructions teachers are obliged to carry out. The process appeared eleven of the sampled twenty clauses studied.
The Mental process suggests cognitive responsibilities and prohibitions where teachers are warned against or made to bear in mind the dangers of violation of certain instructions. Mental process is used in five clauses out of the twenty clauses understudied. Meanwhile, Relational process identifies or gives attribute of the Participants and this is restrictively employed in the clauses the research covers. It appears in three clauses out of the twenty clauses the research covers. This is so because the roles of Relational process in policy statement are restricted.
Mark theme is fronted in order to specify those attributes or practices that constitute corrupt practices in the profession. Other examples include clauses 2 of tables 15, 14, and 13.
Interpersonal meta-function deals with the relationship between participants in a clause. The key concepts here include Mood and Residue. This relationship is expressed between Participants and Processes. The study of the clauses reveals the principal use of modulation to suggest obligation or command. This is necessitated by the use of negative and positive modulated forms such as “teachers should …” or “teachers should not …” The use of such interpersonal meta-function clearly suggests a tone of non-participatory or neutrality from the angle of the writer. It proposes that a distinct body or a high authority sat down, made consultations and drafted the codes of conduct and made it binding on teachers.
On the other hand, at the level of Clause Complexes, 23clause complexes were identified and analysed using taxis and logico-semantic relations. The result of the study is summarised in the following tables:
Table 1: Clause Complexes
| Taxis | Logico-Semantic Relations of Expansions | Frequency | Clauses |
| Parataxis | Extension | 11 | 21-27, 30-34, 37 |
| Enhancement | 1 | 23 | |
| Elaboration | 2 | 17 and 19 |
Table 2: Clause Complexes
| Taxis | Logico-Semantic Relations of Expansions | Frequency | Clauses |
| Hypotaxis | Extension | = | = |
| Enhancement | 9 | 18,20,22,28,29,31,35,46, 37 | |
| Elaboration | 2 | 20 and 38 |
A clause complex in SFL implies a grammatical structure where two or more clauses are fused together into a single structure in which it is analysed as a univariate structure. In other words, the grammatical status of a clause complex is the same with that of a clause. In the course of the study, 23 clause complexes were identified and analysed. The results have shown that fourteen (14) clause complexes are paratactic and eleven (11) are hypotactic. This has shown a slight structural imbalance in the statement of the codes. It means that the number of clause complexes with dual or multiple ideas or messages slightly outnumbered the ones with single ideas and modifications in the 25 clause complexes understudied.
The result has also shown that the codes contain the highest number of paratactic extension. Paratactic extensionoccurs in eleven (11) clause complexes out of the 25 complex clauses examined. There are also two occurrences of paratactic elaboration but no single occurrence of paratactic enhancement. Hypotactic elaboration occurs in two (2) clause complexes, while hypotactic enhancement appears in nine (9)clauses. In the clause complexes examined, none contains hypotactic extension. The reason is likely because extended expansions encapsulate relations of addition, and as such, it is hardly employed in Hypotaxis.
This result generally indicates the nature of the language of codes and policy statement where ideas and instructions are briefly enumerated. However, the reason why we have discovered more cases of paratactic extension but one instanceof paratactic enhancement is parataxis creates room for one idea in clause structure. On the other hand, there are more examples of hypotactic enhancement but no single instance of extension because Hypotaxis accommodates only one idea at a time and, in most, the idea is only enhanced or elaborated.
4.0. Findings
4.1. Qualitative Analysis of the Nigerian Teachers’ Codes
One of the objectives of the study is to carry out a qualitative analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes. By this, the researcher aims at studying the meanings of the professional guidelines contained in the Nigerian teachers’ codes. After a study of thirty-nine codes, captured in the forty-five sampled clauses and clause complexes, it is revealed that the codes are clearly listed as typical sets of professional policy statementsoutlining what is acceptable and what is unacceptable in the profession. These set of instructions and obligations are written in “phraseological” patterns that can easily be analysed and interpreted. As an official document, the codes contain subtitles which offer themes to the clauses that are written under them.This organizational structure serves as a guide that further simplifies the messages of the codes. Thus, the researcher discovers that the Nigerian teachers’ codes are ideological and professional ethical principles that offer sufficient guidance to all teachers in the profession in syntactic and semantic structures that are congruent and interpretable.
4.2. Application of Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics to the study
In terms of the theory that the study applies, the researcher discovers that Systemic Functional Linguistics theory is adequate for the study. This is because in as much as there are other linguistics theories that may be satisfactory for the study, Systemic Functional Linguistics theory offers an essentialtheoretical frame that enables the researcher to achieve all the aims and objectives of the study. In the course of the study, the researcher discovers that the instructions contained in the Nigerian teachers’ codes reflect the three meta-functions specified in Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics. The basic tenets of the three meta-functions of meaning of a text are utilized while analysing twenty clauses of the teachers’ codes. All the sampled clauses are successfully analysed using the properties of ideational, interpersonal and textual meta-functions.
Also, through taxis and logico-semantic relations proposed by the theory, the researcher is able to study the structure of clause complexes of the Nigerian teachers’ codes. For example, twenty-five clause complexes are successfully analysed using the features of taxis and logico-semantic relations. The clauses reflect the two taxis proposed by the theory. The researcher discovers that out of the twenty-five clause complexes the study covers, fourteen (14) of them are paratactic while eleven (11) clause complexes are hypotactic. Also, the three relations of expansion, namely: extension, elaboration and enhancement offered by the theory are successfully used in interpreting the meanings of teachers’ codes.
4.3. Meta-functions of Nigerian Teachers’ codes
After the study of the meta-functions of teachers’ codes, the researcher discovers that the structure and information contained in the forty-five clauses reflect ideational, interpersonal and textual meta-functions. For instance, all the features of ideational meta-function such as Process, Participants and Circumstance are represented in the causes. Under textual meta-function, theme and rheme reflect in all the clauses. Lastly, interpersonal meta-function deals with mood. It is discovered that modulated mood replicates in all the clauses the researcher sampled. Therefore, by using the three meta-functions of SFL theory, the researcher is able to analyse the structure and functional meanings of the individual teachers’ codes.
4.4. Classification and Analysis of clauses of Nigerian Teachers’ Codes
The aim of categorizing and analysing the clauses of the Nigerian teachers’ codes has been achieved at the end of the study. This is because in the course of the study, twenty clauses are classified and analysed. In the process of their analyses, it is discovered that the 20 clauses contain the elements of Transitivity, Mood, and Theme. For instance, in the case of transitivity, the clauses encompass the three aspects of Transitivity, namely: Participant, Process and Circumstance. Also, all the clauses contain Mood and Residue, as well as Theme and Rheme.
The study reveals that the Processes employed in the clauses are Material, Mental and Relational. The predominant Process, that is, Material process appears in 12 out of the 20clauses. This Process is used frequently because it is the process of doing and it is relatively suitable to use when giving charge or a set of obligations. Relational process appears three times and Mental process five times. The researcher also discovers that Participant is also involved in all the 20 clausessampled. Details of their involvement include —Actor (appears in l3 clauses), Goal (appears in 13 clauses), Beneficiary (5 clauses), Senser (5 clauses) and, finally, Token, Carrier, Attribute, and Value (in one clause each).
Another finding of the study of the clauses of teachers’ codes is that Circumstance is used in 18 clauses out of the 20understudied clauses to give detailed information regarding how, where, when and why. The use of Circumstance in the clauses is to clarify, disambiguate, specify and exemplify, where applicable, the information that seems technical or complicated. Also, the study reveals that an unmarked theme (Teachers) is used in 16 clauses out of the 20 clauses to emphasize that teachers are at the centre of the code of ethics and to indicate that they are the ones who are being addressed.Lastly, it is discovered that Mood in the clauses revolves around Teachers and modality. Modality here encompasses the negative and positive modulated form such as “should not” and “should” respectively. This prime use of modulation suggests profoundly a perceptible tone of obligation and subtle command that require obedience.
4.5. Clause Complexes of Nigerian teachers’ codes by Classification and Analysis
One of the aims of the study is to categorize, according to structure, the clause complexes of Nigerian teachers’ codes. In order to achieve this objective, twenty-five (25) clause complexes are grouped and analysed using taxis and logico-semantic relation of expansion. After the study of taxis and logico-semantic relations of the clause complexes, it is discovered that all the taxis are represented and all the three logico-semantics relations of expansion, except projections, arerepresented. It is revealed that the Nigerian teachers’ codesreflect the two taxis. For instance, out of the twenty-five (25)clause complexes studied, fourteen (14) reflect Parataxis and the other eleven (11) are Hypotactic.
Parataxis contains at least two ideas while Hypotaxiscontains one idea and at least a modification. It is also discovered that the heavy use of hypotactic enhancement in the codes is to disambiguate and clarify possible areas of ambiguity and haziness. The non-representation of hypotactic extension shows that hypotactic structures do not need additional information. This is because they are designed to contain one idea that should only be enhanced or elaborated. Also, there is no case of paratactic enhancement. The reason is because paratactic structures contain at least two ideas that are straightforward, and as such, do not need modifications or any clarification. Lastly, it is revealed that “clauses” are simply listed and the question of thematic progression hardly arises.Meanwhile, for the “clause complexes” a derived thematic progression is used across the clause complexes where ahypertheme of the superordinate clause is shared across subordinate clauses in the univariate structures.
4.6. Functional Analysis in the Nigerian Teachers’ codes and ethics
One of the most important aims of the study is to interpret the functional messages contained in the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics. After the study of thirty-nine codes encapsulated in forty-five clauses and clause complexes, the researcher discovers that the functional messages of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics revolve around how teachers should relate professionally with students, parents, employers, fellow teachers and the society. In specifying these relationships, the codes draw boundaries of restrictions and flexibility by stipulating what is acceptable and what is not acceptable in the profession. Also, the codes contain guidelines on professional growth and etiquettes. For instance, teachers are given professional instructions on discipline, plagiarism, competence, personality, constructive criticism, respect and so on.
Also, after examining the instructions in the codes, the researcher discovers that, in as much as, the general structures and directives of the codes are clearly spelt out, there are some clauses that are less informative than required. For such clauses, interpretation is needed. For instance, the clause – Teachers should not unduly advertise themselves in order to gain undue advantage over colleagues … is not as informative as required because it does not give any instance of any unprofessional demeanour that constitutes “unduly advertisement of oneself”. Another example would be the ambiguous word, “incentives”, in – Teachers should give necessary incentives to subordinates to empower them to advance and excel in their professional careers. The clause is likely to be misinterpreted because it does not provide an example of any professional gestures that can serve as essential incentives to subordinate colleagues.
Furthermore, the researcher uncovers that one of the reasons teachers’ codes are violated, misinterpreted and misapplied by some teachers is because for one reason; allteachers need interpretation of the codes. Meanwhile, there is no provision in the codes regarding their (codes) interpretationeven to the newly recruited teachers. Apart from lack of interpretation, there are vital professional guides that are either missing or not emphasized in the codes. For instance, the codes do not specify teachers’ dress code. Dress code announces a profession and any profession that is silent on dress code, inadvertently, speaks volumes of “anything-can-go.” Of course, the codes mention “indecent dressing” in the passing while listing examples of the social vices teachers should avoid. However, this is not enough; besides, what constitutes “indecent dressing” is relative to individuals, society, culture and religion.
Finally, the researcher discovers that the codes do not specify any legal channels teachers should follow in the time of conflict with their employers. If legal principles or provisions are instituted, some teaching unions can easily turn to and the problem of incessant strike actions would be minimized.
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0. Preamble
This chapter presents summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study. In the summary section, a general recap of the study is made. The conclusion of the study is based on the objectives, research questions, data analysis and research findings. Recommendations are drawn based on thestatement of the problem and research findings for the benefits of next researchers who may be interested in carrying out a related study.
5. 1. Summary
So far, a textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes has been comprehensively studied where 45 clauses are selected and analyzed using Systemic Functional Linguistics theory. The major sources of data collection for the research are TRCN Teachers’ Code of Conduct, the internet and various print materials. Twenty of the selected clauses in TRCNTeachers’ Code of Conduct are sampled in tables and analysed, while twenty-five clause complexes are (selected from the same source) listed and analysed using taxis and lexico-semantic relations of expansion.
In line with what the researcher set out to do, it can be said that the general aim of the study has been achieved. This is because at least a qualitative analysis of Nigerian teachers’ code of conduct has been carried out. In the course of the study, the researcher samples data on teachers’ codes and analyse the structure and functional messages contained in the codes without emphasizing on figures. The researcher employsHalliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics in the study. The three meta-functions of the theory are used in analysing the clauses of the codes which are sampled in tables. The identified twenty-five (25) clause complexes are sampled and analysed using taxis and logico-semantic relations of expansion.
In the twenty clauses the research work examines, it is uncovered that all the three meta-functions are represented. Regarding ideational meta-function which involves Participants, Process and Circumstance, it is discovered that the reason why Material process is used frequently in the codes is because it is the Process of doing, and as such, it is relatively suitable when giving a charge or a set of instructions. Also, Circumstance is employed in virtually all the clauses in order to give specificity or details to the codes. The employedcircumstantial information enriches and clarifies every reservation and uncertainty. In addition, the twenty examined clauses contain all the features of textual meta-functions such as Theme and Rheme. It is discovered that in the clauses, the unmarked theme – teachers – is employed in order to foreground the fact that “teachers” are the target entities in the clauses who are being addressed and who are to carry out the command or the obligations. At the level of interpersonal meta-function, Mood and Modality are fundamental. At this level, there is Mood and Residue. In 16 out of the 20 clauses, mood mediates between “Teachers” and “Modality” – “should” or “should not”. This indicates that a set of instructions are given to be carried out.
The study also analyses twenty-five (25) clause complexes of the Nigerian teachers’ codes under taxis and logico-semantic relations of expansion. For instance, in the course of the study it is discovered that relations of projection are not represented in the complexes and the reason is thatteachers’ codes are instructions and not general speeches. In speech discourse, reported speeches are involved and as such projections are clearly marked out. However, leaving projections aside, the clause complexes are made up of Taxis (Parataxis and Hypotaxis) and Lexico-Semantic Relations of Expansion. Out of the 25 clause complexes, 14 of them are paratactic while eleven are hypotactic. These are represented along with the three aspects of expansion, namely: elaboration, extension and enhancement.
The study analyses the functional messages of the teachers’ codes. Forty-five codes, captured as clauses and clause complexes, are structurally and semantically analysed where their functional messages are drawn. The summary of the codes is that they are a set of professional guidelines meant to regulate the conduct of members of the teaching profession. The codes specify how teachers should relate with students, fellow teachers, parents, employers and the society. The codes also guide teachers on professional growth and empowerment through skills acquisition and the general principles of professional wellbeing. The messages of the codes touch on various aspects of the teaching profession and the general code of conduct regarding what is acceptable and what is unacceptable in the profession.
In terms of the structure of the research, chapter one provides a general background of the study regarding what prompts the study and why the study is important. The same chapter gives specific information on how the researcher intends to carry out the study and the areas the research will cover. In chapter two, the researcher reviews relevant scholarly opinions on applicable concepts such as textual analysis, discourse analysis, text, texture, cohesion, thematic progression, the teaching profession, theoretical framework and so on. Chapter three contains a detailed description of research methodology. Chapter four samples and analyses teachers’ codes under clauses and clause complexes where findings are drawn based on the objectives of the study. In chapter five, the researcher summarises the entire research work and makes conclusion based on data analysis and research findings, while recommendations are made in line with statement of the problem and for subsequent researchers who would want to embark on a related study.
5.2. Conclusion
The problems the research work sets out to address are that; first, the region of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics on discourse landscape has suffered relative linguistic negligenceby discourse analysts. As such, little has been done in the area because linguists seem not to pick interest to explore the terrain. Secondly, there are always cases of violation of teachers’ codes by some Nigerian teachers. A lot of time, this deplorable unprofessionalism is blamed on either ignorance of the codes or misinterpretation of the codes, rather than premeditated desecration. As a result of these reasons, the researcher sets out to carry out textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics in order to fill in the linguistic gap and to interpret the linguistic structures and functionalmessages of the codes. In carrying out this qualitative analysis, the researcher’s precedence is to analyze clauses and clause complexes of the codes.
Based on the above plan, a textual analysis of Nigerian Teachers’ codes and ethics is conducted using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics theory. In the course of thestudy of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethical discourse, the researcher discovers that the clauses represent the three meta-functions proposed by Halliday in his theory. The meta-functions include: textual meta-function, ideational meta-function, and interpersonal meta-function.
In the analysis of the clauses, the researcher discovers that in ideational meta-functions, the clauses represent transitivity (participants, process, and circumstance). The processes represented in the clauses are material, mental and relational. Meanwhile, verbal process, existential process, and behaviour process are not functional in the 20 clauses the research covers. The Participants realized in the clauses include: Actor/Goal/Beneficiary, senser/Phenomenon andtoken/value/carrier/Attribute. On the other hand, Existent/Behaver/Behaviour and Sayer/verbiage/Receiver are not identified because the existential, behaviour, and verbal processes respectively are not represented in the clauses.Lastly, circumstance appeared in 18 out of the 20 clauses to either disambiguate or expatiate on the information given in the clauses. At the level of interpersonal meta-function, mood revolves around “Teachers” and either “should” or “should not” in sixteen out of the twenty clauses to indicate a tone of obligation. Textual meta-function of the clauses is also carried out and the researcher discovers that Theme and Rheme arerepresented in the twenty clauses the research sampled. However, in all the clauses the question of thematicprogression did not arise because in the discourse of Nigerian teachers’ code of conduct, instructions are structurally listed in independent clauses, and as such, clauses do not contain obvious inklings of thematic progressions.
In analysing clause complexes, twenty-five clauses aresampled. These clauses characterize taxis and lexico-semantic relations of expansion. Fourteen (14) of these clause complexes are paratactic, while eleven (11) of them are hypotactic. Expansion of enhancement, extension and elaboration appear in the clause complexes. In the course of the study, the researcher discovers that extension and elaboration, except enhancement appear in the paratactic complexes. Similarly, elaboration and enhancement, except extension, reflect in all the hypotactic complexes.
The functional messages contained in the codes revolve around how teachers should relate with students, fellow teachers, parents, employers and the society in a manner that absolute professionalism will be espoused. Consequently, the guidelines encapsulated in the codes cut across different echelons of professional operations and teaching endeavours. In as much as the codes cover so much in terms of content, quality and quantity of professional instructions and regulations, the researcher discovers that there are certain vital ideological information that are left out. For instance, the codes do not specify how teachers will get to know about the teachers’ code of conduct. There is no provision or specification on sensitization plan regarding how to get teachers acquainted with the codes. So, if teachers contravenethe codes on the ground of ignorance of them, then the authorities must look into it.
Similarly, the instructions in the codes seem to be clearly spelt out. However, there are some ideological areas that interpretation is required especially by newly employed teachers. Unfortunately, there is no provision in the codes specifying how the codes should be interpreted to teachers. Possibly, there is a flawed assumption that teachers are great educators; so, they should be able to read the codes independently and understand. This may explain why some teachers misinterpret and misapply the codes. All the same, there are other areas of inadequacies of the Nigerian teachers’ codes; however, as a professional document, the codes constitute a discourse or text that can be sufficiently analysed using diverse linguistic machinery.
Thus, we may sum up that the scheme of carrying out textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory has been productively executed. This is because in the course of the study, forty-five clauses of teachers’ codes are productively analysed and answers provided for all the research questions. With appropriate answers provided to the research questions, the tenets of research objectives addressed, unprejudiced findings drawn, appropriate conclusion made and pertinentrecommendations offered; it follows that the aims and objectives of the study have been achieved.
5.3. Suggestions
This research work sets out to undertake textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics. The researcher carries out the study using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics theory where the meta-functions of the clauses are systematically analysed. The research work specifically analyses clauses and clause complexes of the Nigerian teachers’ codes. The discourse problem the research sets out to address is to fill in a linguistic gap since it appears that little has been done in the discourse area of textual analysis of Nigerian teachers’ codes and ethics. The infringement of teachers’ codes by some erring members of the teaching profession is in most cases blamed on unawareness of the codes. In other cases, teachers violate the codes not on the ground of ignorance of the codes but on account of misinterpretation or misapplication. Thus, the researcher setsout to study the codes with the view to filling the long existed linguistic gap and finding out why some teachers areuninformed about the codes and why the codes are sometimes misinterpreted and misapplied. Based on the results from our findings, the following are recommended.
Firstly, textual analysis of the Nigerian teachers’ codes has been successfully carried out, yet it is not enough. There are many limitations, weaknesses and lapses from the study which the next research in the area will have to cover up. In other words, this study is far from being holistic even in the application of the theory, data collection and data analysis. For instance, the study covers only twenty (20) clauses and twenty-five (25) clause complexes of the Nigerian teacher’s ethical discourse. There are other clauses and clause complexes that are not analyzed. Thus, subsequent studies can be done to take care of the said untouched areas.
Secondly, the study covers just the Nigerian teachers’ codes. It would be linguistically interesting when a comparative study of Nigerian teachers’ codes is done in comparison with another country’s teachers’ codes. Also, thisstudy is done using Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistictheory. Perhaps, for theoretical limitations, much is not deduced from the data, but using another theory or more than one theory to study the codes may eliminate such limitationsand offer a balanced analysis. Accordingly, these codes and ethics can be studied using other theories such as Theory of Ideology, Text-linguistics, Appraisal Theory and CriticalDiscourse Analysis etc.
Lastly, Some Nigerian teachers misinterpret and misapply teachers’ codes because the codes are not interpreted to them. To address this problem, Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria should institute a sustainable plan that will ensure that the codes are interpreted to all teachers from time to time. Also, to address the inadequacies of the codes, it is recommended that subsequent editions of the codes should make explicit provision for professional ethics such as dress code and legal channels where teachers can turn to in the time of conflict with their employers. The latter may solve the problem of incessant strike actions that all teaching unions always rely on.
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